Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have emerged as practical and potentially advantageous tools for scientific investigation and reconnaissance of planetary surfaces, such as Mars. Their ability to traverse difficult terrain and provide high-resolution imagery has revolutionized the concept of exploration. However, operating drones in the Martian environment presents fundamental challenges due to the harsh conditions and the different atmosphere. Aerodynamic challenges include low chord-based Reynolds number flows and the presence of dust particles, which can accumulate on the airfoil surface. This paper investigates the accumulation of dust on cambered plates with 6% and 1% camber, suitable for the type of flow studied. The analysis is conducted for Reynolds numbers of around 20,000 as a result of dimension restrictions, assuming a wind speed ranging from 12 to 14 m/s. Computational simulations are performed using a 2D C-type mesh in ANSYS Fluent, employing the 𝛾γ-Re SST turbulence model. Dust particle modeling is achieved through the Discrete Phase Model (DPM), with one-way coupling between phases. The accumulation of particles is monitored over a 6-month period with monthly intervals, and the airfoil is set at a 0° angle of attack. A deposition model, developed using user-defined functions in Fluent, considers particle–airfoil interaction and forces acting on particles. Results indicate a decrease in airfoil performance for negative angles of attack due to geometric changes, particularly due to accumulation on the bottom side near the tip. The discussion includes potential model enhancements and future research directions arising from the assumptions made in this study.

Over the past decade, there has been a considerable increase in space exploration efforts, driving the need for new methods to examine planets and other celestial bodies. The current trend involves designing spacecraft capable of surveying surfaces from elevated positions, with drones proving to be more suited for the task. . The focus of space missions has primarily been on exploring Mars, as evidenced by the pioneering flight of the Ingenuity helicopter in 2021. The Martian environment poses significant aerodynamic challenges due to its thin atmosphere and low pressure, complicating drone flight. The generation of lift is problematic owing to the scant atmosphere and the restricted dimensions required for space missions, resulting in low-chord Reynolds number flows. Despite the reduction in skin friction drag due to lower viscosity, the decrease in airfoil efficiency is significantly compromised, with only a partial counterbalance by the reduced gravitational pull. Two main challenges must be addressed: low chord-based Reynolds number flows and Martian dust. The former results in the formation of Laminar Separation Bubbles (LSB), severely impairing the aerodynamic efficiency of the airfoil. Concurrently, the accumulation of dust particles on the airfoil’s surface significantly affects its performance, altering its geometry and surface roughness. Thus, it is crucial to accurately determine the presence and location of both separation bubbles and particle deposition to predict performance degradation. \\This thesis presents a comprehensive survey on drones for planetary exploration and an analysis conducted on a cambered plate with 6$\%$ camber and 1$\%$ thickness, ideal for the types of flows considered. The studies are carried out for Reynolds number flows, namely 20,000 and 50,000, to observe the effects of rotor and airfoil dimensions. The computational study is performed using ANSYS Fluent, utilising a two-dimensional CFD model with a C-type mesh and the gamma-Re ($\gamma-Re_{\theta}$) transition model, which aids in capturing the behaviour of these flow regimes. Additionally, for the dust study, two phases are created: a primary phase, the atmosphere, and a secondary phase, the dust particles. The volume fraction of particles is assumed to be small enough to imply that the primary phase influences the secondary, but not vice versa (one-way coupling). To assess particle adhesion, a deposition model has been developed to check for the deposition of dust particles, working in conjunction with the Discrete Phase Modelling (DPM), which simulates the trajectory of particles within the control volume. The deposition model comprises a particle transport model, which accounts for the forces acting on the particles, and a particle-wall interaction model, which determines the particles' rebound or adhesion. The results are presented and discussed at the end of the thesis, along with a brief discussion of future studies focusing on alternative assumptions for dust modelling.

In 2021, the Ingenuity helicopter performed the inaugural flight on Mars, heralding a new epoch of exploration. However, the aerodynamics on Mars present unique challenges not found on Earth, such as low chord-based Reynolds number flows, which pose significant hurdles for future missions. The Ingenuity’s design incorporated a Reynolds number of approximately 20,000, dictated by the rotor’s dimensions. This paper investigates the implications of flows at a Reynolds number of 50,000, conducting a comparative analysis with those at 20,000 Re. The objective is to evaluate the feasibility of using larger rotor dimensions or extended airfoil chord lengths. An increase in the Reynolds number alters the size and position of Laminar Separation Bubbles (LSBs) on the airfoil, significantly impacting performance. This study leverages previous research on the structure and dynamics of LSBs to examine the flow around a cambered plate with 6% camber and 1% thickness in Martian conditions. This paper details the methods and mesh used for analysis, assesses airfoil performance, and provides a thorough explanation of the results obtained.

During the last decade, the efforts in space exploration have increased massively and led to a need for new ways to examine planets and other celestial bodies. The modern tendency is to create spacecraft able to scout the surface from a higher point of view, where drones have shown to be most helpful. Even if the benefits brought by this type of technology are considerable, the challenges are still difficult to overcome. This article presents a comprehensive literature review on drone technologies for planetary exploration, focusing mainly on the difficulties encountered. Considerable complications derive from the unknown environment, affecting most of the design, the mathematical model of the body, its controllability, and overall levels of autonomy. Various solutions to these challenges are proposed based on past and future missions. Furthermore, a look into the future gives an idea of possible technological developments and ways to provide the most efficient aerial exploration of other planets.