This paper describes a multi-level strategy with increased complexity through four levels of structural analysis of concrete bridges. The concept was developed to provide a procedure that supports enhanced assessments with better understanding of the structure and more precise predictions of the load-carrying capacity. In order to demonstrate and examine the multi-level strategy, a continuous multi-span prestressed concrete girder bridge, tested until shear failure, was investigated. Calculations of the load-carrying capacity at the initial level of the multi-level strategy consistently resulted in underestimated capacities, with the predicted load ranging from 25% to 78% of the tested failure load, depending on the local resistance model applied. The initial assessment was also associated with issues of localising the shear failure accurately and, consequently, refined structural analysis at an enhanced level was recommended. Enhanced assessment using nonlinear finite element (FE) analysis precisely reproduced the behaviour observed in the experimental test, capturing the actual failure mechanism and the load-carrying capacity with less than 4% deviation to the test. Thus, the enhanced level of assessment, using the proposed multi-level strategy, can be considered to be accurate, but the study also shows the importance of using guidelines for nonlinear FE analysis and bridge-specific information. 

Upgrading existing buildings to new functional requirements may require new openings that can weaken the structure, promptingthe need for strengthening. In such cases traditional strengthening solutions, such as creating a reinforced concrete (RC) or steel frame aroundthe opening, imply long-term restrictions in the use of the structure compared to solutions that use externally bonded composites. Two fabricreinforcedcementitious matrix (FRCM) composites were used in this study to restore the capacity of panels with newly created doortype openings to that of a solid panel. Five half-scale RC panels acting as two-way action compression members were tested to failure.Two full-field optical deformation measurement systems were used to monitor and analyze the global structural response of each testedpanel (i.e., crack pattern, failure mechanism, and displacement/strain fields). The performance of existing design methods for RC panelshas been assessed in comparison with the experimental results. The capacity of strengthened panels with small openings (450 × 1,050 mm) was entirely restored to that of the solid panel. However, for panels with large openings (900 × 1,050 mm), only 75% of the solid panel’scapacity was restored. The capacity of the strengthened panels was about 175 and 150% higher compared to that of reference panels withsmall and large openings, respectively.

Full-scale failure tests of bridges are important for improving understanding of bridges’ behaviour and refining assessment methods. However, such experiments are challenging, often expensive, and thus rare. This paper provides a review of failure tests on concrete bridges, focusing on lessons from them. In total, 40 tests to failure of 30 bridges have been identified. These include various types of bridges, with reinforced concrete or prestressed concrete superstructures, composed of slabs, girders and combinations thereof. Generally, the tests indicated that theoretical calculations of the load-carrying capacity based on methods traditionally used for design and assessment provide conservative estimates. It can also be concluded that almost a third of the experiments resulted in unexpected types of failures, mainly shear instead of flexure. In addition, differences between theoretical and tested capacities are often apparently due to inaccurate representation of geometry, boundary conditions and materials

Building refurbishment works frequently require the cutting of new openings in concrete walls. Cutting new openings weakens the overall response of such elements, so they usually require strengthening. However, current design codes offer little guidance on strengthening walls with openings, and less still on the use of non-metallic reinforcements such as FRP (Fibre Reinforced Polymers) to ensure sufficient load bearing capacity. This paper proposes a new procedure based on limit analysis theory for evaluating the ultimate load of walls with cut-out openings that have been strengthened with carbon-FRP (CFRP). First, the approach is verified against transverse (out-of-plane) and axial (in-plane) loading for unstrengthened specimens. These loading types result in different failure mechanisms: transverse loading leads to failure due to yielding/rupture of the steel reinforcement while axial loading leads to failure by concrete crushing. Second, the proposed method is further developed for CFRP-strengthened specimens under axial loading. It accounts for the contribution of CFRP indirectly, by updating the concrete model with an enhanced compressive strength as a result of confining the piers. Predictions made using the new method agree closely with experimental results.

Redesigning buildings to improve their space efficiency and allow changes in use is often essential during their service lives to comply with shifts in living standards and functional demands.This may require the introduction of new openings in elements such as beams, walls, and slabs,which inevitably reduces their structural performance and hence requires repair or strengthening.However, there are uncertainties regarding both the effects of openings and the best remedial optionsfor them. Traditionally, two methods have been used to strengthen reinforced concrete (RC) walls with openings, these being either to create a frame around the opening using RC/steel membersor to increase the cross-sectional thickness. Currently, intervention in existing buildings must be minimal in order to minimise inconvenience caused by limiting the use of the structure during repairs. One option is to use externally-bonded fibre-reinforced polymers (FRPs).

In this study, the author reports on an experimental investigation of the effectiveness of carbonFRP (CFRP)–based strengthening for restoring the axial capacity of a solid reinforced concretewall after cutting openings. Nine half-scale specimens, designed to represent typical wall panels in residential buildings with and without door-type openings, were tested to failure. The walls were tested in two-way action and subjected to axial loading with low eccentricity (defined as one sixth of the wall’s thickness) along the weak axis to represent imperfections due to thickness variation and misalignment of the panels during the construction process. An extensive instrumentation scheme was used to monitor the specimen’s behaviour during the loading cycles. In addition to classical approaches for measuring strains and displacements, optical 3D measurements were also acquired using the digital image correlation (DIC) technique. These provided better overviews of the failure mechanism by recording the crack pattern development and deformation of the walls throughout the loading history.

Reducing the cross-sectional area by cutting out openings i.e. 25% (hereafter referred to as small opening) and 50% (hereafter referred to as large opening) led to 36% and 50% reductions in peak loads, respectively. In both situations the failure was brittle due to crushing of concrete with spalling and reinforcement buckling. The CFRP strengthening increased the axial capacity of walls with small and large openings by 34 – 50% and 13 – 27%, respectively. This partially restored theircapacities to 85 – 95% and 57 – 63% of their precutting capacity (i.e. solid wall), respectively. A procedure based on a rigid-plastic approach for evaluating the ultimate load of walls with cut-out openings that have been strengthened with FRPs was also proposed in this study. Predictions made using the proposed method agree closely with experimental results.

Redesigning buildings to improve their space efficiency and allow changes in use is often essential during their service lives tocomply with shifts in living standards and functional demands. This may require the introduction of new openings in elements such as beams,walls, and slabs, which inevitably reduces their structural performance and hence requires repair or strengthening. However, there are uncertaintiesregarding both the effects of openings and the best remedial options for them. Here, the authors report on an experimental investigation ofthe effectiveness of fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP)–based strengthening for restoring the axial capacity of a solid RC wall after cutting openings.Nine half-scale specimens, designed to represent typical wall panels in residential buildings with and without door-type openings, were testedto failure. It was found that FRP-confinement and mechanical anchorages increased the axial capacity of walls with small and large openings(which had 25 and 50% reductions in cross-sectional area, respectively) by 34–50% and 13–27%, to 85–94.8% and 56.5–63.4% of their precuttingcapacity, respectively. 

In the current social and economic context, upgrading or retrofitting of existing buildings, instead of replacingwith new constructions, is becoming more and more popular due to shorter service interruptions,accessibility, and economic reasons. Upgrading building to current living standards and new functionalityneed often require new openings to be created in structural elements such as reinforced concrete walls andslabs. With the aim of improving existing strengthening solutions for such cases, this study presents someaspects of an experimental investigation of the effectiveness of fibre reinforced cementitious matrixcomposites (FRCM) strengthening for restoring the axial capacity of a solid reinforced concrete wall aftercreating new door openings. Five half-scale specimens, designed to represent typical wall panels inresidential buildings with and without door-type openings, were tested to failure. It was found that FRCMsystems were able to fully restore the axial capacity of the walls with small openings to that of the solid wall,and to restore the axial capacity of walls with large openings to approximately 75% of that of the solid wall.

Redesigning buildings to improve their space efficiency and allow changes in use is  often essential during their service lives to comply with shifts in living standards and functional demands. This may require the introduction of new openings in elements e.g. walls, which inevitably reduces their structural performance, and hence necessitates repair or strengthening. Here the authors report an experimental investigation of the effectiveness of fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP)-based strengthening for restoring the axial capacity of a solid reinforced concrete wall after cutting openings. Nine half-scale specimens, designed to represent typical wall panels in residential buildings with and without door-type openings, were tested to failure. FRP-confinement and mechanical anchorages increased the axial capacity of walls with small and large openings (which had 25% and 50% reductions in cross-sectional area, respectively) by 34-50% and 13-27%, to 85-94.8% and 56.5-63.4% of their pre-cutting capacity, respectively. Current design models are assessed against experimentally obtained capacities.

Old structures are frequently modified to comply with current living standards and/or legislation. Such modifications may include the addition of new windows or doors and paths for ventilation and heating systems, all of which require openings to be cut into structural walls. However, effects of the required openings are not sufficiently understood. Thus, the objective of the work reported here was to analyze openings’ effects on the axial strength of large concrete wall panels. Three half-scaled walls with two opening configurations, corresponding to “small” and “large” door openings, were subjected to a uniformly distributed axial load with a small eccentricity. The results indicate that the 25% and 50% reductions in cross-sectional area of the solid wall caused by introducing the small and large openings reduced the load-carrying capacity by nearly 36% and 50%, respectively. The failure progression was captured using digital image correlation technique and the results indicated involvement of a plate mechanism rather than uniaxial behavior as adopted in current design codes. Using a simplified procedure, the load-carrying capacity was predicted using existing design models found in the research literature and design codes.

Several measuring techniques based on digital image correlation (DIC) are nowadays used in many fields. DIC measurements can facilitate documentation of crack patterns on specimens subject to loading, valuable information, which would otherwise be hard to obtain, especially in the case of reinforced concrete elements. This can not only give a better insight into the failure mechanism of the element, but also evaluate cracking as measure of serviceability.This article discusses existing serviceability limits and failure modes of reinforced concrete walls in buildings in light of results obtained using DIC on two half-scale reinforced concrete walls with openings tested to failure. Results suggest that cracks induced by a load level equivalent to 70% of ultimate load bearing capacity, do not exceed limits indicated in relevant guidelines.The failure mode of two way walls with openings was found to be similar to that of two way slabs with openings, however differences were identified in the development of the failure mechanism. Finally, two strengthening strategies of reinforced concrete walls are discussed.