This work reports a study of the differences between laser processing of water and gas atomized low alloy steel powders with a focus on powder behavior and performance in additive manufacturing. Material packing densities were measured to establish a relationship between powder packing and track formation. The results showed that the track height when using water atomized powder was 15% lower than the value achieved for the gas atomized powder. High-speed imaging was utilized to observe the material behavior and analyze the powder particle movement under laser irradiation. It was found that water atomized powder has less particle entrainment due to its tendency towards mechanical interlocking. The occurrence of powder spattering and melt pool instabilities was also studied. More frequent spatter ejection is believed to be due to the higher amount of oxygen in the water atomized powder.

This study investigates the movement behavior of particles of dissimilar morphology in the powder bed in Laser Powder Bed Fusion. Gas atomized (GA) and water atomized (WA) low alloy steel powders were employed to study their motion around the laser scan path. Particle velocities, entrainment distances and denudation zones were measured for both powders using high-speed imaging. The entrainment of GA powder particles in front of the laser beam towards the process area was initiated 1.6 mm from the edge of the melt pool, whereas the distance was 0.6–0.8 mm for the WA powder. The differences in observed behavior were related to the variations in particle shape of the two types of powder. The processing of WA powder resulted in a 16% narrower denudation zone (for a low volumetric energy density) compared to GA powder. However, the denudation width difference decreased with increasing volumetric energy density, most likely due to a steeper pressure gradient in the process area which diminishes the impact of powder shape. X-ray computed microtomography was utilized to estimate the drag force acting on the powder particles of various morphologies. The results showed that the radial drag force exerted on GA powder was 64% greater than when using WA powder. Moreover, if the WA powder particles were of elongated shape the drag force decreased by almost an order of magnitude, demonstrating the importance of the particle's morphology in the process dynamics.

This study reports on the impact of repeated powder recycling on the degradation of low alloy steel powder in Laser Powder Bed Fusion. The average powder particle size increased slightly upon recycling due to powder agglomeration and the presence of spatters and other ejecta from the process zone. The oxygen content showed a continuous growth after each recycle, while the other chemical elements of the recycled powder remained largely unchanged. A map of ejecta classification is presented, featuring various ejecta types formed during laser processing. Ejecta of increased diameter and different shapes were observed in the recycled powder, using high-speed imaging and Scanning Electron Microscopy. The ejecta were collected after each powder recycle to enable the calculation of the ejecta mass generated during the process. The result showed a direct correlation between oxygen content in the powder and spatter/ejecta formation with the number of recycling events. It is likely that the increase in oxygen contributes to powder spattering.

This study investigates the impact of powder aging on the degradation of AlSi10Mg powder during processing in laser powder bed fusion. Powder aging as result of handling, continuous storage and recycling is a fundamental concern for aluminum alloys as it introduces oxygen to the feedstock material. In this work, the analysis of the powder properties, affected by laser exposure and the aging procedure, showed a change of chemical and morphological characteristics of the powders in virgin and aged conditions. The oxygen content in the powders appeared to have a significant effect on the powders' surface appearance and light absorbance, gradually deteriorating the processability of the powders with the increase of oxygen level. Optical microscopy and X-ray computed tomography were used to analyze the porosity distribution in the printed part samples, identifying the origin, size and location of the pores. A direct relationship between the pore occurrence in final parts and the oxygen content in the powders was observed, revealing a higher degree of porosity in the aged powder sample (6.5%) in comparison with the virgin state (3.16%). The evolution of mechanical properties in the part samples after laser processing and powder aging was also studied, demonstrating a rapid decrease of ultimate tensile strength and elongation from virgin condition to aged.

This study reports on the laser-assisted reduction of iron ore waste using Al powder as areducing agent. Due to climate change and the global warming situation, it has become ofparamount importance to search for and/or develop green and sustainable processes for ironand steel production. In this regard, a new method for iron ore utilization is proposed in thiswork, investigating the possibility of iron ore waste reduction via metallothermic reaction withAl powder. Laser processing of iron ore fines was performed, focusing on the Fe2O3-Alinteraction behavior and extent of the iron ore reduction. The reaction between the materialsproceeded in a rather intense uncontrolled manner which led to a formation of Fe-rich domainsand alumina as two separate phases. In addition, a combination of Al2O3 and Fe2O3 melts aswell as transitional areas such as intermetallics were observed, suggesting the occurrence ofincomplete reduction reaction in isolated regions. The reduced iron droplets were prone toacquire a sphere-like shape and concentrated mainly near the surface of the Al2O3 melt or at theinterface with the iron oxide. Both SEM, EDS and WDS analyses were employed to analyzechemical composition, microstructure and morphological appearances of the reaction products.High-speed imaging was used to study the process phenomena and observe differences in themovement behavior of the particles. Furthermore, the measurements acquired from X-raycomputed microtomography revealed that approximately 2.4 % of iron was reduced during thelaser processing of Fe2O3-Al powder bed, most likely due to insufficient reaction time orinappropriate equivalence ratio of the two components.

This study reports on the high-speed imaging investigation possibilities of laser beammaterialsurface interaction when processing Fe2O3-Al powders and an Fe2O3 powder-AlSI5wire combination in directed energy deposition. In-situ observation of various melt poolphenomena and exothermic reaction behavior of the material systems using high-speed imagingwas at the focus of this research work. Depending on the feed material arrangement (powderpowderor powder-wire) and process parameters, significant differences in the melt poolformation were observed, including melt pool separation into two distinct phases and theoccurrence of thermite reaction at different stages of the process. In addition to that, theinfluence of feed materials and laser power on the thermite reaction time was discussed in detail,showing their dissimilar behavior. During laser processing of the powder-powder arrangement,the reaction duration increased with the increase of laser power, whereas the powder-wireconfiguration demonstrated the opposite trend, most likely due to the smaller surface contactarea, developed between the iron ore particles and the AlSi5 wire. Chemical composition,morphological appearances and phase accumulation were analyzed using scanning electronmicroscopy and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The obtained data were used toestablish a connection between the melt pool and the reaction products. High-speed imagingwas utilized throughout the experiments to observe and capture the process phenomena.