A robust method is introduced to simulate and study the filler wire metallurgy for controlled cooling conditions after melting, enabling efficient mapping with prompt analysis of trends. Proposed is a reduced, though representative, process with more controllable conditions. Short lengths of filler wires are preplaced in a cavity, drilled into a base metal sheet. Irradiation by a pulsed laser beam melts the wire to generate a sample nugget. Pulse shaping influences the cooling rate, granting the ability to tailor weldament microstructures. The method is demonstrated for S1100QL steel and undermatched filler wire, to obtain high toughness for processes like laser-arc hybrid welding, where a representative thermal cycle is needed. For high toughness, a controlled amount of acicular ferrite and, in turn, nonmetallic inclusions is desirable. This “snapshot” method has revealed a characteristic histogram of inclusion sizes, for different pulse shapes. Additional information on the thermal cycle can be acquired by employing thermocouples, a pyrometer, or advanced methods like high speed imaging or modeling. The method offers a wide spectrum of variants and applications.

Filler wire metallurgy was modified through temporally shaped laser pulses, controlling cooling cycles in a recently developed method. Trends were identified through efficient mapping while maintaining representative thermal cycles of welding processes. A primary pulse melted preplaced filler wires while a secondary, linearly ramped-down pulse elevated the nugget to re-austenization temperatures. Ramped-down pulses resulted in linear cooling rates comparable with and exceeding furnace-based methods, between 50 and 300∘C/s. The linear decay of laser output power guided the temperature through a regime to obtain desired microstructures. For three very high-strength steel filler wire chemistries, quenching resulted in smaller plates with cross-hatched microstructures, accompanied by grain boundary ferrite. Finer bainite microstructures started forming for fast linear temperature decay, about 250∘C/s. Slower decay or a weaker third cycle formed coarser microstructures with coalescent sheaves and less cross-hatching.

Dilution is an unavoidable consequence of multi-material fusion processing, i.e. welding, cladding etc. In this paper we propose a novel method for controlled dilution experiments, analyzing microstructural trends of steel filler wire diluted with steel base metal. The highlight of this method is the control of processing conditions used to melt a pre-determined dilution of two high strength steels. The materials involved are S960QL base metal machining chips and a chopped under-matched wire consumable, which is used to increase the toughness of welded joints. These materials were combined in specific mass ratios in a prepared cavity and then melted by a pulsed laser beam. A high-speed RGB camera evaluated the relative spatial temperature of the melt surface. The molten mass then solidified into a uniform nugget, confirmed by energy dispersive x-ray spectrometry (EDS) to have a homogenous chemical composition (a ‘Snapshot’ nugget). Hardness values obtained for different dilution levels were compared to a narrow gap multi-layer laser weld (NGMLW), with a decreased dilution rate yielding a decreased hardness. The Snapshot microstructures created are similar to the different regions of the NGMLW, in the weld cap and in the body of the weld. Snapshot nuggets were also evaluated for non-metallic inclusion (NMI) size distributions relating to the dilution levels (NMIs are important indicators for acicular ferrite, which has been shown to increase impact toughness).

Separated keyholes generated during a multi-beam laser welding process were observed, analyzed, and quantified. Two high-speed cameras were utilized to capture process phenomena of bead on plate experiments, with a near vertical and a horizontal view. The films were analyzed for: the ability to form a unique keyhole for each beam, the time and location of observed fully penetrated keyhole, and other associated trends. The number of beams was correlated to fully penetrated, separate keyholes. Keyhole separations were observed to be stable while full penetration was less regular. The location of a fully penetrating keyhole correlated with the position of the stronger beam. The dynamic melt wall width separating the keyholes was measured with beam orientation and power ratios between beams having a significant impact. Beam orientation showed that the lagging inter-keyhole wall of a quad-beam process was impacted by the presence of a fully molten front in the in-line beam arrangement. For the cross-beam orientation, the lagging wall did not seem impacted by the melt front. Large power differences between leading beams for the quad-beam, in-line orientation formed a melt column in the location of the weaker beam and spattering from the column.

Material loss during keyhole mode laser welding often leads to surface imperfections that can negatively impact component performance. High-speed imaging identified four types of material ejection attempts: classical spatter, re-captured spatter, protuberances, and scalloping. The momentum attributed to the melt body, which is influenced by the keyhole properties, dictates whether the ejection attempt is successful or if the material is re-captured. The relationship between the dynamics of the keyhole and melt pool was elaborated in an extended systematic description of melt ejection attempts, which were then classified. Ejection attempts were often observed to be proceeded by a co-current swelling of the melt, adjacent to the keyhole, followed by a melt depression. The melt swell would elongate into a melt column with a concentration of momentum, where excessive momentum causes the melt to neck and separate into spatter. Trajectory determines if the spatter becomes a permanent fixture or re-incorporates into the melt body, with the latter having the possibility to cause further melt body disturbances leading to more ejection attempts. If the melt column fails to neck and separate, or an additional force acts upon the column, a protuberance or a scallop could then form. Keyhole and melt pool fluctuations were sometimes observed to be accommodated, avoiding material ejection. In these cases, a stable weld could be obtained with large variations in the dimensions of the melt pool and the keyhole.