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Traffic-related pollutants in urban snow: Concentrations, size fractionation, and release with snowmelt
Luleå University of Technology, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Architecture and Water.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3206-2017
2023 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)Alternative title
Trafikrelaterade föroreningar i urban snö : Koncentrationer, storleksfördelning och spridning vid snösmältning (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

In urban areas with seasonal snow, traffic-related pollutants such as solid particles, metals, chloride, organic pollutants, and microplastics (MPs) can be temporarily stored in snowbanks along roads and streets. When the snow melts, it releases the accumulated pollutants and the resulting snowmelt with diverse pollutants may partly infiltrate into the ground, or enter storm sewers and eventually be discharged into, and impact on, the receiving waters. To address the resulting environmental concerns, it is important to gain a more comprehensive understanding of (i) occurrence, distribution, and temporal variation of conventional (TSS, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, chloride and PAHs) as well as emerging pollutants (Tire and Road Wear Particles (T&RWPs), Platinum Group Elements (PGEs), tungsten (W) and antimony (Sb)) in urban snow, (ii) size fractionation of pollutants in snow, (iii) behaviour of pollutants during snow melting, and (iv) influence of various snow sampling strategies on estimating pollutant loads in snow. Therefore, these four points form the focus of this doctoral thesis.

The work presented in the thesis includes a literature review of metal pollution in urban snow, field sampling of urban roadside snowbanks and snow storage piles, and laboratory-scale snow melting experiments. The field sampling included snow sampling surveys at three locations in Sweden – Frihamnen (one of the ports of Stockholm), and Luleå and Umeå municipalities in Northern Sweden, and served for studies of variations in snow quality in terms of solids, metals, chloride, PAHs and MPs. Some of the field samples were also used in laboratory-scale snow melting experiments to advance the understanding of the fate of pollutants during the snow melting process.

A literature survey identified Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd and Ni as the metals most frequently studied in urban snow, while Sb, W and PGEs in urban snow were seldom studied, and consequently were designated here as ‘emerging pollutants’ in urban snow. These pollutant concentrations in the analysed snow samples differed distinctly because of differences in study area characteristics such as meteorological conditions, traffic intensity and composition, and winter road maintenance as well as snow cover age (SCA). Investigation of estimation accuracies for pollutant loads in temporary snow storage piles highlighted the significant role of the sampling design. Single-column samples were prone to underestimating or overestimating the pollutant loads in snow piles, with variations of up to 400%, observed in the samples collected at Frihamnen. This underscores the importance of collecting and analysing multiple samples for reliable pollutant load assessments.

Comparison of snow quality in three winter seasons (1994-95, 2002-03, and 2020-21) showed a statistically significant decrease in Pb and Cd concentrations in snow samples from 1995 to 2021. This decline may be associated with the regulations limiting these pollutants in car manufacturing industry and the phasing out of leaded gasoline.

In the laboratory snow melting experiments, only 10% of both total metals (Cu, Zn, and Cd) and PAHs, and 20% of T&RWPs, were carried away by the meltwater, while the rest stayed in the (immobilised) sediment residue. The dissolved (<0.45 µm) and truly dissolved (<3000 MWCO) metals and chloride exhibited a preferential elution during melting, whereas TSS and PAHs displayed a delayed release.

In summary, the thesis contributes to developing a comprehensive understanding of urban snow pollution dynamics and underscores the significance of, and need for, effective snow management for mitigating environmental impacts of urban snow pollution.

Abstract [sv]

Trafikrelaterade föroreningar som partiklar, metaller, klorid, organiska föroreningar och mikroplaster (MP) lagras tillfälligt i plogvallar längs gator och vägar i urbana områden. När snön smälter frigörs de ackumulerade föroreningarna och smältvattnet som innehåller olika föroreningar kommer infiltrera marken eller avledas via dagvattenledningar och så småningom släppas ut i, och påverka, recipienter. För att kunna hantera utsläppen till miljön som uppstår som en följd av detta är det viktigt att få en mer omfattande förståelse av (i) förekomst, distribution och tidsvariation av konventionella (TSS, Cu, Zn, Pb, Cd, klorid och PAH:er) samt ”nya” föroreningar (däck- och vägslitagepartiklar (T&RWP), platinagruppelement (PGE), volfram (W) och antimon (Sb)) i urban snö, (ii) storleksfraktionering av föroreningar i snö, (iii) spridning av föroreningarna vid snösmältning samt (iv) hur metoder och tillvägagångssätt för snöprovtagning i fält påverkar osäkerheten i mätdata. Därför utgör dessa fyra punkter fokus för denna doktorsavhandling.

Arbetet som presenteras i avhandlingen inkluderar en litteraturstudie av föroreningar såsom metaller i urban snö, fältprovtagning av plogvallar och snöhögar samt smältningsexperiment i laboratorieskala. Fältprovtagningen genomfördes på tre platser i Sverige – Frihamnen (en av Stockholms hamnar), samt Luleå och Umeå kommuner i norra Sverige, och användes till studier av variationer i snökvalitet med avseende på suspenderade partiklar, metaller, klorider, PAH:er och mikroplast partiklar. Ett urval av fältproverna användes också i laboratorieexperiment för att studera hur olika föroreningar påverkas under snösmältningsprocessen.

En litteraturöversikt identifierade Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd och Ni som de mest frekvent studerade metallerna i urban snö. Sb, W och PGEs har studerats mer sällan och benämns därför här som "nya föroreningar”. Koncentrationerna av dessa föroreningar i de analyserade snöproverna skiljde sig tydligt på grund av skillnader mellan provtagningsplatserna såsom meteorologiska förhållanden, trafikintensitet och -sammansättning, vintervägunderhåll samt snöns ålder (SCA). Undersökningar av mätnoggrannhet för bestämning av föroreningsmängder lagrade i snöhögar påverkades av hur proverna togs. Enstaka prover genom hela snödjupet hade en tendens att underskatta eller överskatta föroreningsbelastningen i snöhögarna, med variationer på upp till 400%, vilket observerades i prover som togs i Frihamnen. Det understryker vikten av att samla in och analysera flera prover för att kunna göra pålitliga bedömningar av den faktiska föroreningsbelastningen.

Jämförande analys av snökvalitet under tre vintersäsonger (1994-95, 2002-03 och 2020-21) visade en statistiskt signifikant minskning av Pb- och Cd-koncentrationerna i snöprover från 1995 till 2021. Denna minskning kan tillskrivas lagar och föreskrifter om minskad användning av dessa ämnen under årens gång.

I laboratorieexperiment med snösmältning följde endast 10% av totala metaller (Cu, Zn och Cd) och PAH:er med det avrinnande smältvatten, medan resten stannade kvar (immobiliserade) som sediment på platsen för snöhögen. De lösta (<0,45 µm) och sant lösta (<3000 MWCO) storleksfraktionerna av metallerna samt klorider frigjordes tidigt under smältförloppet (preferential elution), medan TSS och PAH:er uppvisade en fördröjd frisättning (delayed release).

Sammanfattningsvis bidrar avhandlingen till att utveckla en övergripande förståelse för dynamiken av föroreningar i urban snö och lyfter fram betydelsen, och behovet, av effektiv snöhantering för att minska miljöpåverkan av föroreningar som förekommer i urban snö.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Luleå: Luleå University of Technology, 2023.
Series
Doctoral thesis / Luleå University of Technology 1 jan 1997 → …, ISSN 1402-1544
Keywords [en]
Urban snow, Traffic pollution, Suspended solids, Metals, PAHs, Tire and Road wear Particles (T&RWPs), Microplastics (MPs), Size fractionation
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-101700ISBN: 978-91-8048-410-7 (print)ISBN: 978-91-8048-411-4 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:ltu-101700DiVA, id: diva2:1805704
Public defence
2023-12-15, A1547, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2023-10-18 Created: 2023-10-18 Last updated: 2023-11-24Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Traffic-related metals in urban snow cover: A review of the  literature data and the feasibility of filling gaps by field data collection
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Traffic-related metals in urban snow cover: A review of the  literature data and the feasibility of filling gaps by field data collection
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Keywords
Urban snow, traffic metals, metal fractionation, Platinum group elements (PGEs), Tungsten (W), Antimony (Sb).
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-101683 (URN)
Available from: 2023-10-17 Created: 2023-10-17 Last updated: 2023-10-18
2. Assessing Variation in urban snow quality indicated by three seasonal snow surveys in a northern city conducted within a span of 27 years
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Assessing Variation in urban snow quality indicated by three seasonal snow surveys in a northern city conducted within a span of 27 years
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Keywords
Urban snow, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Metals, PAHs, Metal fractionation
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-101699 (URN)
Available from: 2023-10-18 Created: 2023-10-18 Last updated: 2023-10-18
3. Microplastics (MPs) in urban roadside snowbanks: Quantities, size fractions and dynamics of release
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Microplastics (MPs) in urban roadside snowbanks: Quantities, size fractions and dynamics of release
Show others...
2022 (English)In: Science of the Total Environment, ISSN 0048-9697, E-ISSN 1879-1026, Vol. 851, part 2, article id 158306Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The microplastics (MP) pollution has been receiving high attention in recent years, because of the massive amounts of plastics it contributes to the environment. Tyre wear and road wear particles (TWP and RWPs) were identified as major sources of MPs, but the observed data on these particles in urban snow deposits and snowmelt is scarce. To contribute to remediation of this situation, a study designed to quantify TWPs and RWPs in urban roadside snowbanks, and assess the MP occurrence in three size fractions, was conducted in the Luleå and Umeå municipalities in Northern Sweden. TWPs and RWPs were determined in three size fractions: 50–100 μm, 100–300 μm, and ≥300 μm, and their release from melting snow was investigated in the laboratory under controlled conditions. Among the MPs identified in snow and the associated snowmelt samples, a majority consisted of both types of particles (T&RWPs) with an average of 20,000 ± 48,000 number/L, whereas other MPs (fibres, fragments, flakes, and films of plastic) were much less plentiful with an average concentration of 24 ± 16 number/L. The largest proportion of T&RWPs was detected in the size fraction 50–100 μm (around 80 %), and the smallest proportion was in the fraction ≥300 μm (about 2 %). Of the T&RWPs, about 85 % were black bitumen particles (RWPs), composed of bitumen, mineral material and polymer modifiers, and 15 % were tire wear particles (TWPs) composed of rubber. The laboratory snow melting experiments demonstrated that urban snow stored MPs, which were eventually released during snowmelt. The ultimate fate of released MPs would depend on snowmelt drainage; it may either drain away from the road pavement and infiltrate into the ground, or enter the road gutter and be conveyed to storm sewers discharging to the receiving waters.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2022
Keywords
Microplastics (MPs), tyre and road wear particles (T&RWPs), RWPs (bitumen), TWPs (rubber), urban snow, snowmelt
National Category
Oceanography, Hydrology and Water Resources Materials Chemistry
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-92741 (URN)10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158306 (DOI)000863090700009 ()36030866 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85137159111 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2015-00120Vinnova, 2016-05176, 2018-00441
Note

Validerad;2022;Nivå 2;2022-09-05 (hanlid)

Available from: 2022-09-01 Created: 2022-09-01 Last updated: 2023-10-18Bibliographically approved
4. Laboratory Melting of Late-Winter Urban Snow Samples: The Magnitude and Dynamics of Releases of Heavy Metals and PAHs
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Laboratory Melting of Late-Winter Urban Snow Samples: The Magnitude and Dynamics of Releases of Heavy Metals and PAHs
2019 (English)In: Water, Air and Soil Pollution, ISSN 0049-6979, E-ISSN 1573-2932, Vol. 230, no 8, article id 182Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Laboratory snow melting experiments were conducted with actual late-winter snow samples, collected just before the final snowmelt, in two similar northern Swedish cities, Luleå and Umeå, to investigate releases of the selected heavy metals (HM) (Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd) and 16 USEPA PAHs from melting snow. Metal concentrations were determined in three fractions: total, dissolved, and truly dissolved (defined as the fraction passing through a 3-kMWCO ultrafilter). Total HM concentrations in snowmelt were rather high at both sites and reflected the accumulation of pollutants in the roadside snowbanks over a period of about 5 months: Cd = 0.43, Cu = 303, Pb = 41.9, Zn = 817 (μg/l), and TSS = 2000 (mg/l) in Luleå samples and Cd = 1.87, Cu = 905, Pb = 165, Zn = 3150 (μg/l), and TSS = 4800 (mg/l) in Umeå samples. The difference between metal and TSS concentrations at the two sites of similar characteristics was attributed to a smaller volume snowbank in Umeå. The dissolved HM concentrations represented relatively small fractions of the total concentrations (0.3–6.9% in Luleå and 0.01–3.1% in Umeå). The truly dissolved fraction represented 71–90% of the dissolved fraction in Luleå and 74–98% in Umeå. At both sites, the dissolved fractions exhibited preferential elution from the laboratory snow piles. The PAHs studied (16 US EPA PAHs) were mostly particulate bound, with only 5–12% of the total burden contributed by the meltwater, and most dissolved concentrations below the reporting limits. PAH concentrations in the Luleå samples were about one-third to one-fourth of those in Umeå. In general, the releases of PAHs from the snowbank were delayed, compared with releases of meltwater, and showed similar release patterns as TSS.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer, 2019
Keywords
PAHs, Road salt, Sediment, Snowmelt, Truly dissolved metals, Urban late-winter snow
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering; Centre - Centre for Stormwater Management (DRIZZLE)
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-75595 (URN)10.1007/s11270-019-4201-2 (DOI)000477606600002 ()2-s2.0-85069681181 (Scopus ID)
Note

Validerad;2019;Nivå 2;2019-08-20 (johcin)

Available from: 2019-08-20 Created: 2019-08-20 Last updated: 2023-10-18Bibliographically approved
5. Estimating Pollution Loads in Snow Removed from a Port Facility: Snow Pile Sampling Strategies
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Estimating Pollution Loads in Snow Removed from a Port Facility: Snow Pile Sampling Strategies
2021 (English)In: Water, Air and Soil Pollution, ISSN 0049-6979, E-ISSN 1573-2932, Vol. 232, no 2, article id 75Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Choosing the appropriate sampling strategy is significant while estimating the pollutant loads in a snow pile and assessing environmental impacts of dumping snow into water bodies. This paper compares different snow pile sampling strategies, looking for the most efficient way to estimate the pollutant loads in a snow pile. For this purpose, 177 snow samples were collected from nine snow piles (average pile area − 30 m2, height − 2 m) during four sampling occasions at Frihamnen, Ports of Stockholm’s port area. The measured concentrations of TSS, LOI, pH, conductivity, and heavy metals (Zn, Cu, Cd, Cr, Pb, and V) in the collected samples indicated that pollutants are not uniformly distributed in the snow piles. Pollutant loads calculated from different sampling strategies were compared against the load calculated using all samples collected for each pile (best estimate of mass load, BEML). The results/study showed that systematic grid sampling is the best choice when the objective of sampling is to estimate the pollutant loads accurately. Estimating pollutant loads from single snow column samples (collected at a point from the snow pile through the entire depth of the pile) produced up to 400% variation from BEML, whereas samples composed by mixing volume-proportional subsamples from all samples (horizontal composite samples) produced only up to 50% variation. Around nine samples were required to estimate the pollutant loads within 50% deviation from BEML for the studied snow piles. Converting pollutant concentrations in snow to equivalent concentrations in snowmelt and comparing it with available guideline values for receiving water, Zn was identified as the critical pollutant.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2021
Keywords
Mass load, Pollutants in urban snow, Snow disposal in water, Snow pile sampling, Sampling strategies, Systematic grid sampling
National Category
Water Engineering
Research subject
Urban Water Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-82797 (URN)10.1007/s11270-021-05002-9 (DOI)000620055300004 ()2-s2.0-85101431765 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2015-00120Vinnova, 2016-05176
Note

Validerad;2021;Nivå 2;2021-02-15 (alebob)

Available from: 2021-02-13 Created: 2021-02-13 Last updated: 2023-10-18Bibliographically approved

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