As emission regulations in the EU are becoming stricter, the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from the construction industry has become a pressing need. As part of the efforts related to this issue, it has been found that Environmental Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) approaches are required to optimize the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of buildings and infrastructure assets. In this paper, The Institution of Structural Engineers guidance on how to calculate the embodied carbon in structures is used as LCA model and evaluated in a case study. The guidance divides the structure´s life cycle into five stages (A1-A3: Product, A4-A5: Construction process, B1-B7: Use, C1-C4: End of live and D: Benefits and loads beyond the system boundary) and the environmental impact is measured in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent emissions (kgCo2e) or global warming potential (GWP). The model was applied to an existing reinforced concrete trough bridge, which is a structure type commonly used in Swedish railways. Results show that that the model was effective and simple for investigating the environmental impact of the studied structure.
One of the widespread issues in concrete structures is cracks occurring at early age. Cracks that appear in the young concrete may cause early start of corrosion of rebars or early penetration of harmful liquids or gases into the concrete body. These situations could result in reduced service life and in significantly increased maintenance cost of structures. Therefore it is important for construction companies to avoid these cracks. Restraint represents one of the main sources of thermal and shrinkage stresses at early age concrete. The casting sequence is affected by the restraint from adjacent structures. The present study discusses the influence of five casting sequences for the typical structure slab-on-ground. The aim is to map restraints for a number of possible casting sequences, and to identify the sequence with the lowest restraint. The study covers both continuous and jumped casting sequences, which include one, two and three contact edges. The result shows that the best casting sequence is the continuous technique with one contact edge.
Restrained movement in early age concrete may cause cracking. The boundary conditions – restraint – influence the possible crack distribution. This study aims at highlighting the effect of such restraint on the crack distribution. This is done by using the “Cracking Model for Concrete” in ABAQUS/Explicit simulating the non-linear behaviour under and after cracking. In the study the typical case wall-on-slab was in focus using a structure previously been tested in laboratory with both fixed and free bottom slab. The result of the modelling shows fairly good agreement with the cracks observed in the tests.
Estimation of restraint is very important for accurately predicting the risk of early thermal and shrinkage cracking in concrete structures. The stress in young concrete is affected by changes in its dimensions during hydration and the restraint imposed by adjoining structures. In concrete culverts, the restraints from existing structures acting upon the first and second casting sections to be cast are different, causing them to exhibit different early cracking behaviour. This work presents a new method for predicting restraint in complex concrete structures using artificial neural networks (ANNs). Finite element calculations were performed to predict restraint in 108 slabs, 324 walls and 972 roofs from second sections of concrete culverts, and the results obtained were used to train and validate ANN models. The ANN models were then used to study the effects of varying selected parameters (the thickness and width of the roof and slab, the thickness and height of the walls, and the length of the culvert section) on the predicted restraint. Mathematical expressions for predicting restraint values in slabs, walls and roofs were derived based on the ANN models’ output and implemented in an Excel spreadsheet that provides a simple way of predicting restraint in practical applications. Restraint values predicted in this way agree well with the results of finite-element calculations
Concrete cracks in structures such as water tanks and nuclear power stations cause anxiety to owners, contractors and engineers. These cracks may significantly increase the structure’s permeability and thus increase leakage, reduce durability, and eventually lead to loss of structural functionality. Therefore it is important to minimize their occurrence and size. To identify effective ways of minimizing cracking in young concrete segments, a parametric study was conducted using the finite element method (FEM). Parameters considered include casting sequence, joint position, wall height, and cooling. The study examined continuous and jumped casting approaches to the casting of a cylindrical reinforced concrete tank for a sewage-treatment plant, with and without the application of the ‘kicker’ technique in which the lower part of the wall is cast with the slab. The main cause of cracking is thermal change and restraint imposed by adjacent older structures, and the FEM predictions agree well with experimental observations. Continuous casting is most effective at minimizing cracking because it creates only two contact edges between newly cast and existing structures producing the lowest level of restraint. The kicker technique is shown to be very effective for reducing restraint and consider rephasing.
Volumetric changes in early age concrete that are restrained might lead to cracks. The degree of restraint is influenced by the casting sequence and the dimensions of the castings. In the current study a new casting technique is proposed to reduce restraint in the newly cast concrete with a new arrangement of the structural joint to the existing old concrete. The proposed technique is valid for the typical structure wall-on-slab using one structural joint. This casting method means that lower part of the wall is cast together with the slab, and that part is called a kicker. Hereby, the behavior of the structure changes from a typical case wall-on-slab to a typical case wall-on-wall. It has been proven by the beam theory and demonstrated by numerical calculations that there is a clear reduction in the restraint from the slab to the wall using kickers. In the paper different kicker heights are studied with the aim of determining the minimum restraint in the upper part of the wall cast in contact with the kicker. The technique using kickers is compared with common measures used in the field to avoid cracking, such as cooling pipes in the new casting and/or heating cables in the adjoining old concrete. The presented method is both cost and time effective, as it opens the possibility to use larger structural length of each casting sequence.
Estimation of restraint is very important for accurate prediction of the risk of concrete cracking at early age. The present study predicts the restraint in 324 walls and 972 roofs for a concrete culvert. A parametric study included the thickness and width of the roofs, thickness and height of the walls, thickness and width of the slab, and length of the structures. Each parameter increased or decreased the restraint in the walls and the roofs. The calculation of the restraint was done elastically by the finite-element method (FE). The results were used by an artificial neural network (ANN) tool, where firstly an influential percentage was investigated as input parameters on the restraint prediction. Equations have been derived by the ANN model to calculate the restraint in the walls and the roofs. It was then used in an Excel sheet to calculate the restraint and compare the result with the result from the finite-element calculations giving high accuracy between the ANN model and the FE calculations
The present study deals with both the compensation plane method, CPM, and local restraint method, LRM, as alternative methods studying crack risks for early age concrete. It is shown that CPM can be used both for cooling and heating, but basic LRM cannot be applied to heating. This paper presents an improved equivalent restraint method, ERM, which easily can be applied both for usage of heating and cooling for general structures. Restraint curves are given for two different infrastructures, one founded on frictional materials and another on rock. Such curves might be directly applied in design using LRM and ERM.
Existing restraint curves have been applied to the method of artificial neural networks (ANN) to model restraint in the wall for the typical structure wall-on-slab. It has been proven that ANN is capable of modeling the restraint with good accuracy. The usage of the neural network has been demonstrated to give a clear picture of the relative importance of the input parameters. Further, it is shown that the results from the neural network can be represented by a series of basic weight and response functions. Thus, the results can easily be made available to any engineer without use of complicated software.
I rapporten visas på möjligheterna med att använda tillförlitlighetsanalys på byggnadskonstruktioner som förstärks. I det stora fokuseras på betongkonstruktioner och särskilt diskuteras förstärkning av betongkonstruktioner med hjälp av utanpåliggande kolfiberkompositmaterial. Förstudien visar att tillförlitlighetsanalys i generella termer kan vara mycket användbart när det gäller att studera bärförmågan samt vilken konsekvens detta har för den befintliga konstruktionen, speciellt tydligt blir detta när det kopplas till verkliga objekt. Utöver detta visar studien på möjligheter att på ett mer nyanserat sätt förstärka konstruktioner där tillförlitlighetsanalys är ett viktigt verktyg. Studien visar också på behov av fortsatt forskning, speciellt tydligt är detta när det gäller vilka värden samt vilka partialkoefficienter man ska välja för de nya materialen som börjar användas, dvs. för kompositmaterial. I tillägg till detta behöver en nyanserad studie göras gällande de beräkningsmodeller som används i samband med förstärkning och även avseende på de brottmoder som kan uppstå.
In the research project Sustainable steel-composite briges in built environment a holistic approach was applied to steel-composite bridges by combining analyses of Lifecycle Assesment (LCA), Lifecycle Costs (LCC) and Lifcycle Performance (LCP). In order to disseminate the project and its results, Ramboll hosted a workshop in Stockholm in March 2018, including also some Swedish examples of LCC/LCA, upcoming investments and R&D. The workshop was a part of the dissemination project SBRI+ (RFCS 2016-710068).
Bonded concrete overlays (BCO) on bridge decks are beneficial solutions due to their superior properties as compared to the typical asphalt pavement. A significant number of overlays suffer however, from occurrence of cracks and delamination due to poor bond, and restrained shrinkage and thermal dilation. Over the past years different appraisals for estimation of the restrained deformations have been developed, from micro-scale models, based on poromechanics, to empirical equations as given in B3 or B4 models suggested by Baiant. This paper provides a short overview of calculation models along with a brief theoretical explanation of shrinkage mechanism.
Some examples are given of assessment of fastenings to concrete structures and the work started by Rolf Eligehausen in fib Task Group 2.9 “Fastenings to structural concrete and masonry”. Studies have been made on e.g. the influence of creep on adhesive anchors and of surface reinforcement and size effects on headed anchors.
I samband med projektet "30 ton på Malmbanan", Paulson-Töyrä (1996), konstaterades att bron över Luossajokk i Kiruna inte klarade de nya förhöjda lasterna. Bron har två spann och en utkragande konsol 10,25 + 6,3 + 3,4 m. Överbyggnaden utgörs av ett slakarmerat betongtråg med ett nytt mellanstöd som uppfördes 1965 då en äldre överbyggnad byttes ut. En klassningsberäkning och en utredning av förstärkningsbehov utfördes. Efter en förnyad översyn av brons bärförmåga utfördes töjningsmätningar vintern och sommaren 2001. Töjningsmätningarna indikerade förvånansvärt små påkänningar i bron. En närmare utredning av brons säkerhet att bära uppträdande laster genomförs därför i denna rapport. Detta sker med hjälp av en nyanserad säkerhetsberäkning med säkerhetsindexmetod. Den nya genomgången visar att medelvärdet för bärförmågan för moment är 2,89 MNm med standardavvikelsen 0,19 MNm i det mest utsatta snittet med dragpåkänningar i överkant i korta spannet. Detta kan jämföras med det formella dimensioneringsvärdet 1,99 MNm som erhölls i klassningsberäkningen med beaktande av aktuella partialkoefficienter. I det nya medelvärdet har en lägre uppmätt effektiv höjd beaktats, att ett av tolv armeringsjärn borrats av samt att betong- och armeringshållfastheterna är högre än de nominella dimensioneringsvärdena. På lastsidan gav klassningsberäkningen i motsvarande snitt att det formella dimensioneringsvärdet för momentet är 2,79 MNm. En analys av verkliga uppträdande laster ger att medelvärdet maximalt uppgår till 2,05 MNm. Detta lastfall utgörs av ett lok placerat med tre axlar i längsta spannet och tre axlar placerade på konsolen, om såväl bromslast som ojämn temperaturlast och dynamiskt tillskott uppträder samtidigt. Enligt BV Bärighet (1996) behöver ojämn temperatur inte beaktas, vilket är rimligt med tanke på att detta är ett statiskt obestämt lastfall som försvinner vid uppsprickning i brottstadiet. Det har heller inte medräknats i tidigare klassningsberäkningar. I så fall fås att lasten har medelvärdet 1,66 MNm och att säkerhetsindex β varierar mellan 3,8 och 6,0 beroende på vilka antaganden som görs om lasternas statistiska fördelning. För en rimlig fördelning innehålls kravet i säkerhetsklass 3 att säkerhetsindex β 4,75. Bron visar sig därför, enligt vår bedömning och med beaktande av erhållna mätresultat, ha erforderlig bärförmåga om hastigheten begränsas på bron så att eventuella dynamiska tillskott blir låga och/eller inverkan av ojämn temperatur försummas. Brons fortsatta uppförande bör kontrolleras genom ett mätprogram. Detta bör förutom armeringstöjningar med befintliga givare även inkludera mätningar av nedböjningar för att säkerställa att använda beräkningsmodeller och randvillkor på ett korrekt sätt återger brons beteende. Storleken på den dynamiska förstoringsfaktorn D bör även mätas liksom inverkan av bromskrafter och ojämn temperaturfördelning. På så sätt kan ett säkrare underlag erhållas för bedömning av frekvensfunktionerna för dessa vanliga lasteffekter. Dessa värden borde även vara av intresse vid säkerhetsbedömning av likartade järnvägsbroar.
Examples are given of methods used and results obtained from two bridges assessed in Sweden. The following sectional forces were critical: (a) Bending, shear and fatigue in a two-span railway trough bridge and (b) Shear and torsion in a three-span prestressed cantilever box girder road bridge. In the assessments we evaluated material properties, loads and load carrying capacity using deterministic and probabilistic methods
Preliminary results obtained from short term test-loading are used to illustrate possibilities of FEM used to calibrate complex interaction characteristics between a pile and soil in a bridge with integral abutments. The measurements are obtained during the winter season on the bridge over Leduån, in Northern Sweden. The bridge is built in 2006 and used for long term monitoring within the international project INTAB supported by RFCS. The main objective of the on-going research project is to propose recommendations for rational analysis and design of bridges with integral abutments.
The paper describes assessment of the performance of cement-poor concreteson the basis of packing theory. The concretes are intended for sealing segments of deep boreholes and have a small amount of cement for minimizing the mutual chemical impact on the contacting clay seals. The composition is examined by application of packing theory with respect to the cement/aggregate ratio and the gradation of the aggregate material which is crushed quartzite for providing high internal friction after maturation, as well as to talc added for fluidity and to the small amount of cement. Low porosity and micro-structural stability must be guaranteed for very long periods of time. The study exemplifies how packing theory assist designers in selecting optimal proportions of the various components. Optimum particle packing implies minimizing the porosity and thereby reducing the amount of cement paste needed to fill the voids between the aggregate particles. The use of talc as inorganic super-plasticizer since ordinary organic additives for reaching high fluidity at casting are undesirable, and since talc reacts with cement and provides high strength in along-term perspective.
Under de senaste åren har ingenjörer och designers i Europa börjat att använda Eurokod 4-2 – Samverkansbroar. Tillämpningen är nästan densamma i de olika länderna, fast med vissa skillnader, som det kan vara i början. Man har funnit en del svårigheter, problem och fördelar. Den 17 mars 2001 hölls en workshop om Eurokod 4-2 – Samverkansbroar på Ramböll i Stockholm och som lockade omkring 55 personer från tio olika länder. Workshopen fokuserade på bakgrunden till reglerna, på erfarenheter från Frankrike, Storbritannien, Sverige och Italien och avrundades med lite innovativa utveckling av samverkansbroar och en diskussion om möjlig forskning och utveckling för vidare utveckling av Eurokod 4-2.
This paper describes the large-scale tests on a composite bridge with prefabricated deck elements and dry joints between the elements. The work is part of the European R&D project ELEM (RFCS-CT-2008-00039). This type of bridge has been used for three single-span bridges in Sweden and has contributed to minimizing construction time as well as disturbance to traffi c. The behaviour at midspan and the behaviour over an internal support of a continuous bridge were studied in the tests, and the results analysed by FEM and discussed. Conclusions regarding the design of this type of bridge are drawn, with respect to the global analysis as well as cross-section capacity.
A prefabricated concrete deck with dry joints between deck elements has been developed to make prefabricated bridges even more competitive. This type of bridge deck has been used on single span bridges in Sweden, and is now under development for multi span bridges. This paper describes how the deck system works. Results from laboratory tests of shear keys between deck elements are also presented together with an analysis comparing the predicted capacity with the measured failure load.
Self-induced non-elastic deformations in hardening concrete, caused by restrained volume changes due to thermal dilatation and moisture deformations, often leads to cracking. In crack risk analyses, determination of the degree of restraint is vital. One model to estimate the restraint and calculate the thermal crack risk is the Equivalent Restraint Method, ERM. The method has previously been analyzed but needs to be further examined and validated. Recordings of tunnel sections were performed and compared to calculated values by ERM. Satisfying correlation between theoretically estimated and observed temperatures, strains and time of through cracking was achieve which is promising for future implementation and testing of the method.
Föreliggande handbok är framtagen i ett SBUF-projekt med Kjell Wallin, Peab som projektledare. Projektet har genomförts i nära samarbete mellan Peab Sverige AB och Luleå tekniska universitet. Arbetet har inneburit att ett stort antal datorberäkningar har genomförts, och de redovisas i diagramform i denna handbok. Resultaten avses att användas att fylla i en blankett i ett Excel-ark. Syftet är att för typfallet vägg-på-platta ska handboken ge underlag för sprickriskbedömning och i förekommande fall ange vilka typåtgärder som ska sättas in. Avsikten är därvid att man inte ska behöva göra några externa beräkningar, men användaren har full frihet att själv ta fram temperaturen eller tvångssituationen på godtyckligt annat sätt. Handboksmetodiken avser en fortsättning på det som i Bronormen (Bro 94, bilaga 9-5) kallas metod 2, och den redovisade kompletteringen innefattar främst att erforderliga åtgärder (kylning och/eller värmning) för det valda typfallet inkluderas.
Tests casting the construction "wall on slab" have in the project been realized for three different situations. Measurements have been performed with respect to temperatures, deformations, strains and mapping of crack patterns. In addition, properties for the young concrete have been investigated to get basic data in order to estimate temperatures and risks of cracking. The construction wall on slab represents a typical case, which can be found in many real structures like walls, retaining walls, tray structures, tunnels and bridges.The project has two main questions: 1) What are the differences in restraint conditions between the three tested constructions? Is it correct to model a wall, that both has a horizontal casting joints against the slab, and a vertical casting joint against an adjacent wall, with a free wall of double length?, and 2) Does a slip in the horizontal casting joint exist, and does is reduce the restraint in the wall?The answers are that the supposed models describe the real behaviour very well. This was confirmed by the fact that both the temperatures as well as the crack risks agreed very well between the test results and the calculation results. For the walls that cracked a slip in the casting joints could be indicated, but these test results could not be quantified. In summary, the project has been successful and clearly answered questions that previously only were based on assumptions.
The aim of this study is to provide a numerical model which can realistically present the failure load and failure mechanism of pullout loaded anchor bolts (headed studs) in reinforced concrete structures. The numerical analysis is carried out through a three-dimensional finite element (FE) code based on the Microplane constitutive law. The intension is to calibrate the FE model and to verify the numerical results against available test results. The calibrated FE model is intended to be used for an ongoing study to evaluate the influence of member thickness, surface reinforcement and size of anchor head on the tensile capacity and performance of anchor bolts.
The simulation results showed very good agreements with the available test results. The objectivity of numerical modelling in respect to the size of finite elements as well as the defined boundary conditions was confirmed by additional numerical analyses.
Influence of several sustained loading levels and various in-service conditions on the long-term performance of adhesive bonded anchors are experimentally evaluated. Adhesive bonded anchors with 16 and 20 mm diameters were subjected to sustained load levels between approximately 23 and 70% of their mean ultimate short-term capacities. The creep deformation of tested adhesive anchors was monitored over approximately 28 years. The tested in-service conditions were indoor, outdoor, wetness (i.e. water on the surface of concrete) and presence in the concrete of salt additives. The tested adhesive anchors in the indoor conditions could carry sustained loads up to 47% of their mean ultimate short-term capacities. However, the adhesive anchors under outdoor environment showed larger creep deformations and failure occurred for anchors subjected to sustained loads higher than 23% of the anchors’ mean ultimate short-time capacities. Wet condition seemed to have no adverse effect on the anchors’ creep behavior, but caused corrosion of the steel in the anchors over time. Salt additives in concrete had negligible influence on the long-term performance and creep deformation of the tested adhesive anchors
In numerical assessments of concrete bridges, the value of the concrete fracture energy GF plays an important role. However, mostly the fracture energy is only estimated based on the concrete compressive strength using empirical formulae. In order to study methods to determine the concrete fracture energy for existing bridges, tests were carried out on 55-year-old concrete from a bridge tested to failure in Kiruna in northern Sweden. Uniaxial tensile tests are performed on notched cylindrical concrete cores drilled out from this and other bridges. In the paper, different methods to determine the concrete fracture energy are discussed and recommendations are given for assessment procedures.
Cast-in-place headed anchors with different head sizes embedded in plain and reinforced concrete members of various thicknesses were subjected to pullout tests. The influence of member thickness, size of the anchor head, and orthogonal surface reinforcement on the tensile capacity and performance of anchor bolts was evaluated. The member thickness varied from 1.5 to 3.0 times the anchor embedment depth and headed anchors with small, medium, and large heads were tested.
The experimental results of the present study showed that increasing member thickness and/or the use of orthogonal surface reinforcement lead to increased anchorage capacity and anchorage ductility, whereas the anchorage stiffness decreases slightly. In contrast to the anchorage ductility, the tensile breakout resistance and the anchorage stiffness increase significantly with increasing size of the anchor head.
The experimental results corresponded closely to numerical results from a previous study (Nilforoush et al. 2016 a & b), which suggested a modified model incorporating several modification factors for improving the predictive capability of the Concrete Capacity (CC) method. In the present study, these factors yielded improved prediction of the tensile breakout capacity of the tested headed anchors.
Cast-in-place anchor bolts embedded in plain and steel fibre-reinforced normal- and high-strength concrete members were subjected to monotonic tensile loads. The influence of the concrete member thickness, concrete strength, and the addition of steel fibres to the concrete mixture, on the anchorage capacity and performance was evaluated. The experimental results were evaluated in terms of anchorage capacity, anchorage ductility and stiffness as well as failure mode and geometry. Furthermore, the validity of Concrete Capacity (CC) method for predicting the tensile breakout capacity of anchor bolts in plain and steel fibre-reinforced normal- and high-strength concrete members was evaluated.
The anchorage capacity and ductility increased slightly with increasing member thickness, whereas the anchorage stiffness decreased slightly. In contrast to the anchorage ductility, the anchorage capacity and stiffness increased considerably with increasing concrete compressive strength. The anchorage capacity and ductility also increased significantly with the addition of steel fibres to the concrete mixtures. This enhanced capacity and ductility resulted from the improved flexural tensile strength and post-peak cracking behavior of steel fibre-reinforced concrete.
The average ratio of measured strengths to those predicted by the CC method for anchors in plain concrete members was increased from 1.0 to 1.17 with increasing member thickness. In steel fibre-reinforced concrete, this ratio varied from 1.29 to 1.51, depending on the member thickness and the concrete strength.
The influence of member thickness, size of anchor head, and orthogonal surface reinforcement on the tensile breakout capacity of cast-in-place headed anchors in uncracked concrete was studied both numerically and experimentally. The aim of this paper is to form a background for developing improved methods for the design of new fastenings as well as the assessment of current anchorages in practice. For this purpose, anchor bolts at various embedment depths (hef=50–500 mm) were simulated in plain and reinforced concrete members of various thicknesses (H=1.5–5.0∙hef). Three different head sizes of anchor bolts (i.e. small, medium and large) were also considered at each anchor embedment depth. Furthermore, to verify the numerical findings, a series of anchor pullout tests were carried out at which the testing parameters were similar to those in the numerical study.
Numerical and experimental results show that the tensile breakout capacity of anchor bolts increases by increasing the member thickness or if surface reinforcement is present. The anchorage capacity further increases with increasing the anchor head size. The anchorage behavior becomes ductile by increasing member thickness or by having surface reinforcement, whereas it becomes stiff and more brittle by increasing the size of anchor head. To account for the influence of member thickness, size of anchor head, and orthogonal surface reinforcement on the tensile breakout capacity of headed anchors, the CC method was modified and extended by incorporating three modification factors.
The influence of member thickness, size of anchor head, and orthogonal surface reinforcement on the tensile breakout capacity of cast-in-place headed anchors was studied both numerically and experimentally. The aim of this paper is to form a background for developing improved methods for the design of new fastening systems as well as the assessment of the current anchorage systems in practice. Numerical and experimental results showed that the tensile breakout capacity of anchor bolts increases by increasing the member thickness or if surface reinforcement is present. Furthermore, the anchorage capacity increases with increasing the anchor head size.
An extensive numerical study was carried out to evaluate the influence of concrete member thickness and orthogonal surface reinforcement on the tensile capacity and performance of anchor bolts in uncracked concrete members. Anchor bolts at various embedment depths (hef=50 to 300 mm (1.97 to 11.81 in.)) in unreinforced and reinforced concrete members of various thicknesses (H=1.5 – 5.0∙hef) were simulated. The reinforced concrete slabs were considered to be lightly-reinforced and over-reinforced to evaluate also the influence of amount of reinforcement. Furthermore, the behavior of anchor bolts at various embedment depths in pre-cracked reinforced concrete members was numerically investigated. The numerical results were compared with predictions from current design models including the Concrete Capacity (CC) method.
The numerical results show that in uncracked concrete the tensile capacity of anchor bolts increases up to 20% and the anchorage behavior becomes more ductile with increasing member thickness or by having surface reinforcement. The numerical results also show that the CC method underestimates the tensile capacity of deep anchors (hef≥200 mm (7.87 in.)), while it slightly overestimates the capacity of short anchors (hef≤100 mm (3.94 in.)) in thin unreinforced members. It was also found that the over-reinforced concrete does not improve the anchorage capacity and performance any further than the lightly-reinforced concrete. Based on the numerical results, several recommendations are proposed to account for the influence of member thickness, surface reinforcement and cracked concrete. Further experimental studies are ongoing to verify and generalize the recommendations of this study.
This study evaluated the influence of concrete member thickness and size of anchor head on the tensile capacity and performance of anchor bolts in concrete. Anchor bolts at various embedment depths (hef=50 – 500 mm (1.97 – 19.69 in.)) in concrete members of various thicknesses (H=1.5 – 5.0∙hef) were simulated. Three different sizes of anchor head (small, medium and large) were considered at each anchor embedment depth. The numerical results were compared with predictions from several theoretical and empirical models, including current design models, as well as some test results.
The numerical results show that the concrete cone resistance increases with increasing thickness of concrete member and/or size of the anchor head. Simulations also indicate that current design models generally underestimate the tensile capacity of large anchors.
Two modification factors are proposed to account for the influence of the member thickness and the size of anchor head. Predictions of anchorage capacity using the proposed modification factors have good correlation with the available test results found in the literature.
Post-installed adhesive anchors used for fastening nonstructural and/or structural elements to concrete structures are prone to creep under sustained loads over their service life, which may considerably affect their long-term performance. In this study, the influence of various in-service conditions and sustained loading levels on the long-term performance of adhesive anchors was experimentally examined. The tested adhesive was an unsaturated polyester resin and the bonded anchors were subjected to sustained loads of 23, 47 and 70% of their mean ultimate short-term capacities for up to 10376 days (28.4 years). The tested in-service conditions were indoor temperature, outdoor temperature and humidity variations, wetness and presence in the concrete of salt additives.Results indicate that the tested bonded anchors did not fail indoors when subjected to sustained loads up to 47% of their mean ultimate short-time capacity. However, the long-term performance was substantially impaired outdoors, presumably due to temperature and humidity variations, leading to failure for sustained loads higher than 23% of the anchors’ mean ultimate short-time capacity.
Nowadays, prefabricated concrete components made from Steel-Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (SFRC) are widely used in the construction industry. These components are often connected to existing or new structural elements through various fastening systems. Previous studies have shown that the addition of steel fibers to concrete mixture substantially improves the fracture properties of concrete. To date, however, rather limited research is available on the behavior of fastening systems in SFRC. To improve the current knowledge of fastening systems to SFRC structures, a pilot experimental study is carried out on cast-in-place anchor bolts embedded in Plain Concrete (PC) and SFRC members. In this study, the influence of the presence of steel fibers and concrete compressive strength on the anchorage capacity and performance is evaluated. Furthermore, the applicability of current design methods is evaluated for anchorage systems in SFRC.
Bridges are an important element of the infrastructure today. The technical competence has reached high levels in most countries and the limits given to a bridge designer are set by economic restrictions rather than technical skill. The ever lasting chase for more economic solutions and procedures includes both a wish for cheaper constructions as well as for a decrease in the following maintenance costs. The roller bearings used in conventional bridges are known to generate high costs both during construction and due to maintenance, and the possibility to remove these bearings and accompanying expansion joints are therefore investigated since several years. In Sweden, the absence of bridges built with integral abutments has made it difficult to test and evaluate this solution. In 2005, an international project called Intab was launched with the explicit aim to look at different solutions possible to use if joints and bearings are excluded. One of the most common discussed problems concerning bridges built without expansion joints is the accommodation of longitudinal elongation due to temperature variations. A bridge built with integral abutments is often supported by piles made of steel or concrete. The longitudinal elongation of the superstructure induces a displacement and a moment in these piles, which in time may cause a fatigue failure. Therefore it is of big interest to look at the amplitude of these strains. Within the Intab project, a pilot object was built in Nordmaling, ~50 km south of Umeå. It is a 40 meter long and 5 meter wide composite bridge with two steel girders and a concrete deck. The steel piles in this bridge is equipped with strain gauges who are used both for longterm and shortterm measurements. The sampled data from longterm measurement is collected on a computer on site, and then downloaded through a traditional modem. The data from the shortterm measurement is sampled and collected immediately during the test. The shortterm test is performed during both summer and winter conditions, and consists of a lorry passing the bridge while different measurements are done. The result from the measurement is also compared to calculations and a 2-D FE-model. It seems that short-term measurements performed during warmer months, May and October, show better agreement with the FE-simulations than the tests performed during the winter. The used FE-model is based on restrictions from Bro 2004. Regarding the long-term measurements, the obtained strain values are not in a range where fatigue can be considered as a severe problem.
It is well known for contractors that due to volume change during the hydration phase in concrete structures, large stresses can arise if the structures are restrained, stresses that may cause extensive cracking. Crack risk estimation of early age concrete structures can be based on five steps. Firstly, the type of structure, the material proportions and possible measures to avoid cracking have to be chosen. Secondly, the temperature development has to be determined, and thirdly the restraint situation. Fourthly, structural calculation of the stress or strain ratios follows, which in the fifth step are compared to stated partial coefficients that should not be exceeded. The restraint situation is one of the crucial factors in the crack risk analyses. A semi-analytical method has been derived for the determination of the restraint variation in early age concrete structures and especially for the case wall on slab. The method is derived using compensated line theory. The model depends on the geometry of the structure, the boundary restraint situation, and the location of the young parts on the old parts. The model is supplemented with the effects of high walls and the effects of short structures and/or possible slip failure in the ends of the joint between the young and the old concrete. The model is by regression technique compared to almost 3000 3D elastic FEM calculations of the restraint variation in walls on slabs with different dimensions and base restraint situations. The effective width of the slab is introduced as the only adjustment parameter to get the model to correspond with the FEM calculations. Partial coefficients for thermal cracking problems of young concrete have been calculated and compared with the values stated in the Swedish building code for bridges. The code values are only based on experiences and logical reasoning, whereas the calculated values form a more theoretical base for their determi-nation. The coefficients are calculated with a probabilistic method. Various possible variations of the used variables have been studied showing the wide range of possible results depending on the input. However, with use of material properties and reasonable assumptions related to thermal cracking problems, fairly good agreement has been found between the stated values in the Swedish code and the values obtained through the probabilistic method.
This report contains all background data for the Doctoral Thesis 2003:19 "Restraint Factors and Partial Coefficients for Crack Risk Analyses of Early Age Concrete Structures" by Martin Nilsson.
40% of the energy consumption in Sweden is used in the construction industry. Recycling – including re-usage, recycling and energy recovery – could possibly reduce this energy consumption. Re-usage gives the largest energy savings, evaluated by calculating the recycling potential. Designing for disassembly means planning how structures can easily be disassembled into original components and then recycled. Concrete elements must be designed, documented and assessedregarding reinforcement, cutting locations and degradation, respectively, for a safe reusage in new environments. A plan is designed for how to assess concrete elements and for which new environments they can be used in.