The paper provides an empirical assessment of the electricity efficiency improvement potential in the Swedish pulp and paper industry by employing data envelopment analysis (DEA) and mill-specific input and output data for the years 1995, 2000 and 2005. The empirical results are discussed in relation to the reported outcomes of the Swedish voluntary energy efficiency programme PFE. The estimated electricity efficiency gap is relatively stable over the time period; it equals roughly 1 TWh per year for the sample mills and this is three times higher than the corresponding self-reported electricity savings in PFE. This result is largely a reflection of the fact that in the pulp and paper industry electricity efficiency improvements are typically embodied in the diffusion of new capital equipment, and there is a risk that some of the reported measures in PFE simply constitute an inefficient speed-up of capital turnover. The above does not preclude, though, that many other measures in PFE may have addressed some relevant market failures and barriers in the energy efficiency market. Overall the analysis suggests that future energy efficiency programs could plausibly be better targeted at explicitly promoting technological progress as well as at addressing the most important information and behaviour-related failures.
The research employed a negative binominal count data model approach to analyse the determinants of bioenergy innovations with a special focus on the effect of energy and climate policies. A panel of 14 OECD countries were analysed using patent counts for the period 1978-2009 as a proxy for innovations. The policies examined were feed-in tariffs, quota obligations and different types of investment support schemes. The study found that feed-in tariffs affected innovation positively but quota obligations did not. The results regarding investment support programs were ambiguous since the dummy variable representing strong investment policies was statistically significant whereas the continuous variable for investment support schemes was not. Another finding was that electricity prices seemed to be an important determinant of innovation and that the accumulated stock of knowledge in the bioenergy sector also had a positive impact on bioenergy innovation.
The article investigates whether environmental regulations have affected productivity development and technological change in the European pulp and paper industry. A dynamic panel data approach is selected for analyzing a sample consisting of the pulp and paper industries in eight European countries. Industry total factor productivity for the period 1993–2009 is used as the dependent variable; it is explained by the intensities of environmental regulations for various types of pollutants, as well as by a number of other independent variables. The econometric results indicate that the regulation of nitrogen oxides is associated with productivity improvements with a one-year lag, whereas regulations regarding sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide have not had any statistically significant impact. In line with the a priori expectations, the price of pulp is connected to a negative effect, while lagged R&D expenditures have had corresponding positive impacts. However, since stationary tests are asymptotic and the data series are quite short, strong conclusions regarding the actual causal effect of environmental policy could not be drawn. The results could therefore not be viewed as a proof of the so-called strong Porter hypothesis postulating that stringent well-designed environmental regulations increase productivity growth compared to a no-policy scenario.
Boken ger ett samhällsekonomiskt perpsektiv på utnyttjandet av skogen och dess resurser genom att belysa ett antal centrala ekonomiska och politiska faktorer som påverkar användningen av skogen och till viss del även dess produktionsförmåga. I boken diskuteras också behovet av statlig styrning inom skogssektorn samt analyseras konsekvenserna av olika politiska vägval.
The objective of this paper is to examine the innovation impacts of different renewable energy support policies and their interaction in the empirical context of solar photovoltaic (PV) technology. This is achieved using data on patent applications for 13 countries over the time period 1978-2008. Three policies are included in the analysis: public R&D support to solar PV, fixed feed-in tariffs (FIT), and renewable energy certificate (REC) schemes. The results are overall robust to alternative model specifications, and indicate that: (a) both FIT schemes and REC schemes induce more solar PV patenting activity even though the impact of the former policy appears to be more profound; (b) (lagged) public R&D support has an important impact on solar PV innovation; and (c) policy interaction exists in that the impact of public R&D support on innovation is greater at the margin if it is accompanied by the use of FIT schemes for solar PV. A corresponding interaction effect does not emerge in the case of public R&D and the use of REC schemes, possibly due to the relatively strong technology selection pressure under the latter policy.
First and second generation biofuels are among few low-carbon alternatives for road transport that currently are commercially available or in an early commercialization phase. They are thus potential options for meeting climate targets in the medium term. For the case of Sweden, we investigate cost-efficient use of biofuels in road transport under system-wide CO2 reduction targets to 2050, and the effects of implementation of targets for an almost fossil-free road transport sector to 2030. We apply the bottom-up, optimization MARKAL_Sweden model, which covers the entire Swedish energy system including the transport sector. For CO2 reductions of 80% to 2050 in the Swedish energy system as a whole, the results of the main scenario show an annual growth rate for road transport biofuels of about 6% from 2010 to 2050, with biofuels accounting for 78% of road transport final energy use in 2050. The preferred biofuel choices are methanol and biomethane. When introducing additional fossil fuel phase-out policies in road transport (−80% to 2030), a doubling of the growth rate to 2030 is required and system CO2 abatement costs increases by 6% for the main scenario. Results imply that second generation biofuels, along with energy-efficient vehicle technologies such as plug-in hybrids, can be an important part of optimized system solutions meeting stringent medium-term climate targets.
Bioenergy could contribute both to the reduction of greenhouse gases and to increased energy security, but the extent of this contribution strongly depends on the cost and potential of biomass resources. For Sweden, this study investigates how the implementation of policies for CO2 reduction and for phase out of fossil fuels in road transport affect the future utilization of biomass, in the stationary energy system and in the transport sector, and its price. The analysis is based on the bottom-up, optimization MARKAL_Sweden model, which includes a comprehensive representation of the national energy system. For the analysis, the biomass supply representation of MARKAL_Sweden is updated and improved by the use of, e.g., forestry forecasting modeling and through construction of detailed biomass supply curves. A time horizon up to 2050 is applied. The results indicate a potential for significantly higher use of bioenergy. In the main analysis scenario, in which CO2 reduction of 80% by 2050 is imposed on the Swedish energy system, the total bioenergy utilization increases by 63% by 2050 compared to 2010. The largest increase occurs in the transport sector, which by 2050 accounts for 43% of the total primary bioenergy use. The high demand and strong competition significantly increase biomass prices and lead to the utilization of higher cost biomass sources such as stumps and cultivated energy forest, as well as use of pulpwood resources for energy purposes.
The integration of the Nordic timber markets has been analysed to provide market information to various decision-makers, e.g., climate and industrial policies and investment decisions. This study addresses the interlinkage between Nordic (Sweden, Norway and Finland) roundwood markets (Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)) and Norway spruce ((Picea abies L.) sawlogs and pulpwood). In total, eleven markets were analysed using quarterly data over the period 2006Q1–2017Q4 where various unit root and stationary tests were performed together with Johansen’s cointegration test. In addition, directional causality analyses between the integrated markets were also performed. The results show that the law-of-one-price (LOP) hypothesis can be rejected for most of the studied markets and that no individual market emerges as the price-leader. Only the Swedish and Norwegian pine sawlog markets are integrated suggesting a single market for both countries. Price affecting national and forest-related policies as well as investments in the forestry sector, forest industries, bioenergy sector and other forest product using sectors, will not disperse into a larger international market structure; instead, the price effect will be national and more likely have a more profound effect.
Skogens användningsområden har fluktuerat med tiden. Det nationella skogsprogrammet från 2018 beskriver vikten av ett ekonomiskt-, socialt- och miljömässigt hållbart skogsbruk för ett hållbart samhälle. Skogen är av stor betydelse för den växande cirkulära, biobaserade ekonomin, likväl för flertalet industrier och människans välbefinnande. Syftet med det nationella skogsprogrammet är att stödja de många olika näringarna med bas i skogen, för att ”skogen, det gröna guldet, ska bidra med jobb och hållbar tillväxt i hela landet samt till utvecklingen av en växande bioekonomi” (Regeringskansliet, 2018).
Skogsnäring i Sverige definieras idag som skogsbruk samt skogsindustri. Definitionen innefattar således till största del de industriråvaror som härstammar från träden. Eftersom samhället och skogspolitiken förflyttat sig från att ha varit koncentrerad uteslutande mot träförädlingsindustrin till att även inkludera ett starkare fokus på annan biobaserad produktion och ekosystemtjänster, är dagens traditionella definition av skogsnäringen inte tillräckligt omfattande. Dagens definition utesluter flertalet näringar som har sin bas i skogen, samt andra direkta- och indirekta antropocentriska nyttor, exempelvis rekreationsvärden och biodiversitet. Nyttan som den skogen bidrar till är således undervärderad i dagens definition av skogsnäring.
Norrbotten är ett skogsrikt län och skogen är av stor betydelse för Norrbotten finansiellt, men den är även viktig i en social aspekt för invånarna. När skogens värden inte är tillfullo synliggjorda finns risker att somliga värden förbises vid politiska beslut, och en felaktig allokering av resurserna kan ske. Det är således viktigt att definitionen av Norrbottens skogsnäring diskuteras. Genom användandet av en bredare definition av skogsnäringen kan en mer rättvisande bild av skogens bidrag till Norrbotten uttydas, och dess roll för länets framtida utveckling utvärderas.
Northern Scandinavia is an area, which is rich in natural resources and energy-intensive base industries covering several branches, e.g., Mining, Iron and Steel, Metal production, Pulp and Paper. They are often part of a community network where a change in one node affects the behavior and efficiency of its neighbors. Improvements in environmental load, energy efficiency etc. cannot simply be achieved by improving the individual units. A system approach is needed. Such methods (Process Integration) have been developed within the Nordic Countries for more than twenty years, e.g. within the Swedish national program that was launched 1989. They are been practically applied e.g. at SSAB in Luleå An excellence center for Process Integration in Steelmaking (PRISMA), with industrial partners from Sweden and Finland, has recently been founded at MEFOS in Luleå. The process integration methods have been developed to handle multi-objective problems. This is because the industry has to answer to a combined demand on energy consumption, emission limits for several substances, climate effects as well as costs. For regional evaluation an economic model has been developed which explicitly returns changing input and output prices due to changes in e.g., production technology, derived input demand or the introduction of market instruments. Especially on smaller regional markets, changes in input demand of fibrous raw material might significantly affect its price. This price effect must be considered whenever extensive changes in the production process are considered so that the project is not, ex post, rendered unprofitable. Another factor of great influence is local and national attitudes. These can influence both market value and political decisions. These effects can be evaluated in stakeholder studies. Co-evaluation with the technical parameters mentioned above is interesting, but an obstacle is the difference in result format. A method (CONJOINT) has been developed, by which these results can be converted into numerical parameters. For the Swedish Steel industry it has been tested within the ECO-Cycle program. An attempt to merge these methods into a combined study is presently carried an ongoing PROCESS INTEGRATION study for a Pulp and paper mill in northern Sweden. The possibility to merge into a combined tool or methodology is discussed.
The purpose of this paper is to analyse altering energy demand patterns and energy factor substitution possibilities over time in the pulp and paper industry in order to increase our understanding of suitable policy options for increasing energy efficiency. The investigation employs a flexible translog cost function and an unbalanced panel data set covering 32 pulp and paper mills over the time period 1974-2005 in Sweden. Specifically, we test whether energy factor demand patterns in the industry for the period 1974-1990 differ from those during the latter period, 1991-2005. The empirical results reveal that even though the Swedish pulp and paper industry is relatively insensitive to changes in energy factor input prices in the short run, we find evidence of significant changes over time. According to the results, the own-price sensitivity of fuel has increased since the 1970s and the 1980s, thus indicating that fuel demand has become more sensitive to short-run changes in relative prices. The estimated cross-price elasticities between electricity and fuel also support the hypothesis of increased substitutability over time. However, the null hypothesis of an equal own-price elasticity of electricity demand across the two time periods cannot be rejected
This paper investigates whether shocks (economic effects) to wood fuel production for 18 countries of the European Union (EU) over the period 1961–2012 are temporary or persistent. A variety of time-series and panel data unit root tests are employed. The presence of structural breaks is taken into account when performing those tests. Wood production in approximately 78% of the countries is found to follow a non-stationary process supported by the result that most of the panel unit root tests also point towards a non-stationary process. This indicates that the economic effect will tend to be persistent and suggests that policies affecting wood fuel production, implicitly or explicitly, will have enduring effects. For instance, forest conservation policies will persistently reduce the wood fuel production level.
This paper addresses the performance of the timber markets (Scots pine, Pinus silvestris L. and Norway spruce, Picea abies (L.) Karst.) by evaluating the order of market integration in three Swedish regions (Central, Northern, and Southern). Quarterly data of delivery prices are employed over the period 1999Q1–2012Q4. Various unit root and cointegration tests have been computed. The results indicate that the variables are integrated of first order and co-integrated, especially after controlling for structural breaks. This supports the law-of-one-price hypothesis (LOP). However, the effects of structural shocks on forestry are arguably significant and these are controlled for while performing a vector error-correction mechanism (VECM)-based Granger-causality test. Bi-directional causality between the Northern and central markets is uncovered in the short-run. In the long-run, a similar causal effect is detected between Northern and Southern markets while the central market emerges as the price leader. Further investigation is carried out using variance decompositions and impulse response functions and these approaches also tend to confirm the existence of a single market well, as price interdependence between markets.
This paper investigates whether shocks to pulp for paper production for 17 Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) members over the period 1980–2012 are transitory or permanent. A variety of univariate and panel data unit root tests are employed. The presence of structural breaks is taken into account when performing those tests. Based on the Narayan-Popp univariate unit root test, wood production series for approximately 64.71% of countries is found to follow a non-stationary process. However, univariate unit root tests tend to have low power when the time span is relatively short. Consequently, three generations of panel unit root tests are considered. Cross-sectional dependence is detected. The first generation of unit roots do not effectively control for cross-sectional dependence, while the second and third generations do. The third generation accounts mainly for cross-sectional co-integration. As a confirmatory analysis, both unit root tests that tests for the null of non-stationarity and stationarity are considered. Most of the panel unit root tests point towards a non-stationary process. Hence, while these shocks can be transmitted to other economic sectors, past behaviours of wood production cannot be used for forecasting purposes. Forest conservation policies can have a permanent impact on pulp for paper production.
The forest sector contributes a significant share to national income. The existence and magnitude of causal relationships between forest product exports and economic growth is thus important to understand not least for policy issues. It has vital implications for policy-makers enacting proper development strategies. This causality is usually analyzed using the export-led economic growth hypothesis. International trade is affecting economic growth through enhanced competition and specialization. Export, more specifically, foster economic growth via the accumulation of foreign exchange, by stimulating efficient investments in the right sectors and by allowing for improved economies of scale. Surprisingly, practically no studies have been done analyzing the forest products export-led economic growth hypothesis. Thus, the current study fills an important gap in the literature. The study attempts to test the forest product export-led growth hypothesis for 22 economies over the period 1970 to 2011. Various generations of panel unit root and cointegration tests are applied. The time frame and the selection of countries are purely dictated by the availability of data and the amount of existing productive forest area. The econometric tests are based on augmented Dickey-Fuller unit root and cointegration tests. These tests are necessary before assessing the impact of forest product exports on GDP. The connection between economic growth and forest products exportation is analyzed using an error correction model (ECM) based panel causality test structure. The ECM is subsequently used to estimate short- and long-run elasticities. The series are found to be integrated of order one and cointegrated, especially when applying the third-generation tests. Uni-directional causality running from forest product exports to economic growth is uncovered in the both the short-run and the long-run. Moreover, forest products exportation is found to positively affect economic growth. The short-run elasticity reveals positive and significant income elasticity. A 1% increase in forest product exports will lead to a 0.022% increase in economic growth in the short-run and 0.002% in the long-run. The regional dummy is also significant and positive, implying that countries with significant forest land coverage are bound to experience higher economic growth. The findings will help policymakers in their projections and implementing natural resource and forest policies. Unidirectional causality implies forest product exports can be used to predict economic growth in both short-run and long-run but not vice versa. In general, the results support the ELG hypothesis. Promotion of forest product exportations can lead to a multiplier effect.
The purpose of this paper is to estimate and analyze technical change in the Swedish newsprint industry over the time period 1974-1994. Using a variable Translog cost function as the basis, three different approaches toward estimating technical change are developed: (a) the Tornqvist index, (b) the standard time trend specification, and (c) the general index approach. The empirical results indicate that considerable differences exist between the three approaches, both in terms of their mean estimates of technical change and in their variation over time. Finally, the main determinants of technical change in the Swedish newsprint industry are identified and used to explain the three technical change indices within a simple econometric model. The results indicate that capacity utilization has been the dominant determinant of technical change, but that regulatory intensity and output prices are also important determinants.
In this study, an empirical model of global trade in iron ore is developed and applied. The empirical specification is based on the trade gravity theory in which the trade is determined by the income of the trading countries, the distance between the countries, and other characteristics of the countries. The model is specified allowing for country-specific effects. The estimation is performed with panel data for global bilateral iron ore trade flows from 1980 to 2016 including 121 countries and almost 14,000 observations. The results indicate a strong support of the gravity model hypotheses. On average, the trade value is projected to increase by approximately 5% per year up until 2035. The trade potential of iron ore is estimated to 410 million USD per year. Applied to forecasting and policy analysis, the results represent another worthwhile source of information providing an alternative view of the global trade in iron ore that can be helpful for decision-makers.
This paper identifies and estimates the relative impact that factor input prices, output market size and agglomeration effects have on the choice of location for investment projects in the European pulp and paper industry, with special focus on the price of waste paper A conditional logit model was developed to fit investment projects across 16 European countries for the period 1985-95. The results suggest that factor input prices, in general, and the price for waste paper in particular, are neither a statistical nor an economic significant location determinant for a paper manufacturer. Furthermore, the results suggest that market size and agglomeration effects are considered more important than the price of raw material when an investment site is chosen.
An applied partial equilibrium model of the forest cluster has been developed and implemented to assess the impact of changing market conditions for the sawmill industry in Sweden. The focus of this study was thus to analyse the sawmill industry and the interdependencies between the different sectors in the forest cluster. The dependencies and relationships between the sectors using forest-based raw materials implies that changing market conditions in one sector could have profound effects on the other sectors. In this research report the forest cluster is defined and a partial equilibrium model is developed and implemented (FCM) that simulates the results from changing market conditions for the sawmill industry and its effects on the other sectors in the forest cluster. Three scenarios are simulated using the FCM: (i) a ten percent decrease in demand for sawn wood products; (ii) a 30 percent decrease and; (iii) a ten percent increase. The results indicated that both production and consumption patterns are sensitive to changes in the demand for sawn wood products. There are also significant differences between different intermediate inputs and between different sectors in their responses to these changes. Also, certain sectors and inputs would gain market share while others would lose market shares. Changing output market conditions for the sawmill industry have significant effects on the factor prices and on the flow of intermediate inputs between the forest cluster sectors. In general, in the minor reduction and the worse case scenarios the price for sawlogs is reduced by between nine and 25 percent depending on scenario. Even a small reduction in the demand for sawn wood products has serious effects on the price formation and on the quantitative flows in the cluster. The factor prices for woodchips and sawdust increases by 21 and 34 percent, respectively, as a consequence of a 30 percent reduction in the demand for awn wood products while the price of sawlogs decrease by 25 percent. The reduced supply of the sawmill by-products, i.e., sawdust and woodchips, causes significant price increases forcing the woodboard industry to close down entirely. The forest value will, depending on scenario, decrease by as much as 5.5 billion SEK due to reductions in the demand for sawn wood products. The value of the forest is reduced since forest owners can not fully meet the reduced domestic demand by increasing export volumes. The difference between the sawlogs and pulpwood prices are diminishing considerately mainly as a result of a reduction in the demand for sawlogs from 160 SEK in the baseline scenario to only 51 SEK in the worst case scenario. This complicates the traditional classification between the two types of roundwood. What has traditionally been considered as sawlogs and primarily purchased by the sawmill industry are now close to being classified as “pulpwood” and can thus be diverted to the pulp and paper industry reinforcing the predicaments for the sawmill industry.
Biomass has become a popular alternative to satisfy expanding energy demand and as a substitute for fossil fuels and phased-out nuclear energy in Europe. The European Union White Paper stipulates that the utilization of biomass shall increase to 1566 TWh by 2010. However it is often overlooked that the forest resources are already, to a large extent, used by the forest industries. When promoting biomass for energy generation the consequences for the forest industries also need to be considered. Sweden is an excellent case study, as there are vast quantities of forest resources, nuclear power is starting to be phased out, there are restrictions on expanding hydropower and the political desire exists to "set an example" with respect to carbon dioxide emissions. This paper attempts to estimate and analyse the supply of two types of forest resource, namely, roundwood and harvesting residues derived from final harvesting and commercial thinnings. Two separate supply curves are estimated: one forroundwood and one for harvesting residues. The cost structure is based on an economic-engineering approach where the separate cost components are constructed from the lowest cost element into aggregates for labour, capital, materials and overhead costs for each forest resource. The results indicate an unutilized economic supply of 12 TWh of harvesting residues in Sweden. However, after these 12 TWh have been recovered it becomes more profitable to use roundwood for energy purposes than to continue extracting further amounts of harvesting residues.
An applied partial equilibrium model of the forest cluster has been developed and implemented to assess the impact ofchanging market conditions for the sawmill industry. The focus of this study was to analyze the sawmill industry and the interdependencies between the different sectors in the forest cluster. The dependencies and relationships between the sectors using forest-based raw materials implies that changing market conditions in one sector could have profound effects on other sectors. The analysis indicated that both production and consumption patterns are sensitive to changes in the demand for sawn wood products. There are also significant differences between different intermediate inputs and between different sectors in their responses to these changes. Also, certain sectors and inputs would gain market share while others would lose market shares. Furthermore, changing output market conditions for the sawmill industry have significant effects on the factor prices and on the flow of intermediate inputs between the forest cluster sectors. In general, the price for sawlogs is reduced by between 9 and 25 percent depending on scenario. Even a small reduction in the demand for sawn wood products has serious effects on the price formation and on the quantitative flows in the cluster.
This paper presents an alternative approach in estimating the effect that technological knowledge has on the cost structure facing individual firms. The suggested method is applied to the Swedish kraft paper industry and relies on a comprehensive dataset for eight individual integrated kraft paper mills. The developed model is based on a two-step process. Step one, the estimation of a pure cost reduction index is derived using a flexible variable cost function which is utilising mill-specific dummy variables. In addition, this approach allows for an estimation of the pure unit cost reduction index that is devoid of scale and price effects which, if not dealt with can produce spurious results when estimating learning effects. Step two, is the estimation of a two factor dynamic learning curve model (2FDLC) using the estimated pure unit cost reduction index as dependent variable. The results suggest that the Swedish kraft paper industry has relatively little to gain in terms of cost reduction through a further technological learning. However, the method performed well, producing intuitive and statistically significant estimates indicating its usefulness in further analyses.
The purpose has been to determine to what extent differences in net trade and revealed comparative advantage between EU member states could be explained by differences in forest endowments, domestic demand, energy policies and other country specific characteristics. An adopted model of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, suggesting a direct relationship between a country's trade, forest endowments and income (HOV model), has been empirically estimated for three forest products (roundwood, chips & particles and wood fuel), 19 European countries and for the period 1994-2006. Both net export and an index of revealed comparative advantages was constructed and used as dependent variables. Moreover, different model specification was estimated using different measures of forest endowments. The results suggest that forest endowments are an important determinant for explaining differences in net trade of the included forest commodities. However, domestic demand, measured by income level, is not. Thus, the results provide mixed support for the HOV model
Transaction costs associated with the transaction (frequency, asset specificity and uncertainty) and with the transactors (opportunistic behaviour, bounded rationality and information access) is assessed for investments in heat insulation and energy-saving windows. The decision is econometrically implemented as a binary choice, controlling for the transaction costs and sets of determinants affecting the decision. The results indicate that transaction costs are important determinants for the decision, but more so for heat insulation than for energy-saving windows. Besides transaction costs, experience, communication and length of stay in the dwelling are also affecting the decision. Contrary to previous studies, energy costs, net property values, and personal norms and perceptions are not affecting the decision to energy renovate. To achieve the energy and climate targets for the residential sector in EU, it is important to reduce the sector's energy consumption by creating incentives to do energy renovations. The results suggest that reducing the transaction costs associated with energy renovations might be an appropriate way to do that.
An increasing utilization of biomass is, in the short-term, one of the most realistic alternatives to meet the energy and the environmental goals established by the European Union. As a result, the demand for forest-based products from European forests will increase. However, glaringly little research effort has been made towards analyzing the price effect resulting from the increasing demand for forest-based biomass and how the relevant industry sectors adjust their input demands due to these price changes. The purpose of this paper is thus to provide a disaggregated and detailed empirical estimation and analysis of the various input demand elasticities, as well as of the relevant substitution elasticities. The model is estimated using a panel of 23 European countries for the period between 1999 and 2005, thus allowing for specific country effects. The results indicate that the energy sector is relatively more price sensitive in its input demand for fossil fuels compared to the fibrous fuel categories. Thus, higher fibrous input prices will have a relatively small effect on the quantity of fibrous inputs that the energy sector demands. The forest industry is comparatively more price sensitive in its procurement of fibrous inputs than the energy sector, and will therefore reduce its input demand relatively more as a consequence from a fibrous input price increase. Furthermore, the cross-price elasticities reveal some interesting findings. In general, the energy sector will increase its utilization of fossil fuels as a result of increasing fibrous input price. Conversely, the energy sector will increase the utilization of fibrous input relatively less as a consequence of increasing fossil fuel prices.
This article examines the economic possibilities for the Swedish pulp and paper industry in general and the kraft pulp industry in particular of increasing the share of internally generated energy by using readily available production residues such as black liquor. It is suggested that the industry's reliance on fossil fuels and purchased electricity has decreased over time, thereby reducing the impact of external energy prices on energy investments. The results suggest that the use of biomass will only increase to the point where the existing capacity to do so is met unless heavy investment subsidies are made available.
This study analysed the location of investments in the European pulp and paper industry. Three continuous investment models were estimated allowing for fixed as well as random effects using data for 10 European countries over the period 1978-1995. The results indicated that labour wages, market size and agglomeration effects were the most important determinants of investment levels. The impacts of raw material prices were somewhat ambiguous. However, in the long run waste paper availability seems to matter in the sense of attracting investments. A comparison of the economic significance of changes in the costs of input factors with changes in the market size indicated that proximity to output markets had a larger impact on the decision to invest than proximity to abundant raw materials or cheap access to electricity and labour. Furthermore, the agglomeration coefficient indicated that the power of sunk costs is important.
Mikroekonomi är det vetenskapsområde som analyserar hur marknader för olika varor eller tjänster fungerar. Många av de samhällsekonomiska problem som uppstår kan lättare förstås och lösas genom att tillämpa mikroekonomisk teori. Boken presenterar grundläggande begrepp, förhållanden och teorier som ligger till grund för hur individer eller hushåll fattar sina konsumtionsbeslut. Till detta kopplas hur företag fattar sina produktionsbeslut, det vill säga vad som ska produceras och hur det produceras.Boken inleds med en presentation av hur utbud och efterfrågan samspelar för att bestämma pris och kvantitet av en vara eller tjänst som handlas på en marknad. Detta följs av en djupare analys av nyttoteori och av produktionsteori som ligger till grund för utbudet och efterfrågan. Vidare presenteras hur avsteg från den ideala marknadsformen, fullständig konkurrens, kan ske och hur statligt marknadsingripande kan vara motiverat. Boken innehåller rikligt med diagram och figurer för att visuellt förklara flertalet av de ekonomiska förhållanden som presenteras.Mikroekonomi är skriven för att användas som lärobok i mikroekonomi på grundnivå för universitets- och högskolestudier. Den vänder sig även till en bred grupp av läsare utan förkunskaper i mikroekonomi.