An experiment on a diesel engine provides for validation of a method that retrieves source strength spectra, source strength time histories and sound pressure time histories of the engine's complex partial sources. The method is based on empirical transfer function measurements and inverse matrix calculations briefly described in the article. Different simplifying source models were selected by comparison of calculated and measured auto spectra. The results show: (1) indication of time efficient measurements of source strength spectra, (2) the importance of correct source models in the case of separated source strength time histories, and (3) spectra of separated sound pressure time histories. Listening tests reported that it is possible to detect well differentiated sounds of the partial sources as a result of the method.

The article describes a method to separate time histories of partial sound sources. The goal is to develop a noise control engineering tool for use in sound quality improvement applications. Contributions from partial sound sources are identified. The partial sound sources may be ranked for the purpose of creating a better mixture of sound in selected listening positions. The strategy is to reproduce time histories of sources of importance. The method described includes experimental and calculation parts. The experimental part consists of the recording of sound pressure time signals, reciprocal measurement of frequency response functions, and source strength esti- mation of partial sound sources. The calculation part comprises calculation of the cross-spectral matrix of source strength, calculation of filters, and filtered sound pressure recording to obtain time signals of the individual sources. Usually the contribution from partial sources is impossible to record directly. In this laboratory experi- ment, such control was possible. The laboratory experiment shows that the method described makes it possible to produce informative separation of time histories of partial sound sources. The effects of the errors in the cal- culated time histories are audible but not pronounced.

Projektet syftar till att öka kunskap och förståelse för hur kavitation kan användas och kontrolleras för att koncentrera bearbetningsenergin till frekvensområden som ger effektiv påverkan av cellulosafibrer. Tanken är att skapa ett komplement eller en alternativ teknik till dagens raffinörer. Idén bygger på att resonansförstärkt ultraljud initierar och kollapsar kavitationsbubblor på ytan av cellulosafibrer i vatten. Tidigare forskning har visat att ultraljudsbehandling ger önskade effekter på fiberväggen. Energieffektiviteten har dock inte varit tillräckligt bra och uppskalning är en identifierad problematik. Den föreslagna metoden syftar till att via numerisk och experimentell optimering åstadkomma en energieffektiv och kontrollerad bearbetning av fiberväggen. Den långsiktiga målsättningen är att halvera energiförbrukningen i jämförelse med dagens raffinörer.Hypotesen är att ultraljudskontrollerad kavitation fungerar beroende på att transient asymmetrisk kollapsa av kavitationsbubblor kan ge upphov till extrema tryck på en liten yta. Principen bygger på små att gasbubblor i vatten exciteras av högintensivt ultraljud. Vid en viss kritisk storlek kommer bubblan i resonans och då växer den snabbt. Yttre trycket når sitt max i samband med att bubblan kollapsar. Ultraljud med konstant frekvens (ex 20 kHz) gör att mängder av bubblor, med varierande storlek och harmoniskt relaterade resonansfrekvenser, kollapsar. De jetstrålar i mikroskala som uppstår vid asymmetrisk kollaps av kavitationsbubblor antas ge en mekanisk påverkan av cellulosafibrer i form av både inre och yttre fibrillering.Projektet har resulterat i en utveckling och verifiering av en FE-baserad optimeringsstrategi för flödesinducerad och ultraljudskontrollerad kavitation. Den framtagna kavitationsreaktorn består av en dysa och ett vattenfyllt reaktorrör exciterat med ultraljud. Fibersuspensionen strömmar genom ett inre tunnväggigt rör i reaktorns centrum. Beräkningsmodellen ger stabila resultat avseende ultraljudsexcitering och är kalibrerad med experimentellt bestämda förlustfaktorer för aktuell prototypreaktor. Simuleringar av flödesinducerad kavitation begränsades till ren vattenfas. Den framtagna geometrin är dock verifierad avseende strömning med fibersuspension. Experimentella resultat utan flöde visar mycket god överenstämmelse avseende beräknade svängningsformer och resonansfrekvenser. Beräknad ljudtrycksnivå är högre än uppmätt beroende på de olinjäriteter som uppstår när vätskan utsätts för mycket höga amplituder. Dessutom är förlustfaktorn något högre i experimenten och trycksignalens verkliga effektinnehåll ligger delvis utanför mätområdet.Beräkningsjämförelser med ett alternativt och kommersiellt förekommande reaktorkoncept (behållare), visar att den nyutvecklade rörreaktorn ger högre intensitet i den optimala zonen (+120%). Den totala förlustfaktorn för rörreaktorn är ca 1.1 % vid resonans. Tillförd elektrisk effekt bestäms genom att mäta ström och spänning när kavitationsreaktorn exciteras vid sin resonansfrekvens. Optimal kavitationseffekt identifieras av ljudtrycksamplitudkvoten: pUS(f1.5)/pUS(f1). Kavitation ger effektiv bearbetning av fibermaterialet i zonen för maximal tryckvariation. Initiering av flödesinducerad kavitation med justerbar Venturi-dysa ger intensivare kavitation samt god blandning och sammanhållen fibersuspension. Test och verifiering med fibermaterial är baserad på en HT-CTMP fiber (torkad/aldrig torkad) med 0.5%, 1% och 2% konc. Positiv förändring av fiberkvalitet uppstod endast i några av testfallen. I test med både flödesinducerad och ultraljudsstyrd kavitation uppstod bäst resultat vid lägst energinivå (470 kWh/adt). I övriga testfall finns misstanke om att fibermaterialet har förstörts av för hög kavitationsintensitet. En slutsats som delvis verifieras av SEM-analys av behandlat fibermaterial. Tillförd energinivå var dock inte tillräcklig för att uppnå godkänd massakvalitet, dvs. lika bra eller bättre dragindex. I nuläget går det inte att fastställa om föreslagen metod är energieffektiv på grund av svårigheten i att jämföra en prototyp och fullskaleanläggning. En uppenbar förbättringsmöjlighet med framtagen reaktorlösningen är att förlänga reaktorröret (ej realiserbart i prototypskedet). Den valda reaktorlösningen kan skalas upp genom parallellkoppling och seriekoppling. Seriekoppling och längre reaktorrör kräver ett högre matningstryck vilket kan ge en fördel med högre kavitationsintensitet. Den experimentella valideringen är begränsad till en excitationsfrekvens (22.7 kHz) och normaltryck. En kombination med högre ultraljudsfrekvenser (37 och/eller 53 kHz för rörreaktorn) är en möjlig förbättring genom att de aktiva bubblornas storlek reduceras och får en storleksordning som är bättre anpassad till fiberväggens storlek och struktur. En annan förbättringsaspekt är ett högre statiskt tryck, vilket ökar kavitationsintensiteten och möjliggör en förkortad exponeringstid.

Noise control and sound quality analysis are important, since noise has been registered to be a predominant factor in stress and a source of great annoyance. Traffic noise is a problem and a major part of this noise comes from heavy vehicles. The only legislative requirement for heavy-duty trucks regarding noise emissions, is that the noise level does not exceed an Aweighted sound pressure level of 80 dB. The specification of an A-weighted sound pressure level is, however, not an adequate description of psychoacoustic annoyance and therefore work towards defining a better description of loudness is one of the principal fields of acoustics today. Sound radiation from trucks is speed-related. At medium and high speeds, the overall noise level is comprised mainly of the tyre noise, whereas at low speed and during acceleration, exhaust noise and noise from the engine and transmission structure are predominant. In front of the truck, the noise from the engine and especially that from the timing transmission cover, the torsional damper and the oil sump, comprises a greater proportion of the total noise. The aim of sound quality analysis of diesel engines is to find cost-efficient methods of reducing sound radiation and of changing the character of the sound in order to minimise annoyance. This thesis concerns the development of experimental methods for analysing the sound quality of diesel engines, and focuses on measurement of acoustic intensity, multivariate data analysis, structural modification and subjective assessment of engine noise. The applicability of the FFT-based sound intensity method is evaluated. It is found that the intensity measurements may be influenced by high reactivity, interference due to partlycoherent sources, difficulties in performing the spatial average, real-time limitations and engine speed variations. Scanning the intensity probe, preferably by a robot, is necessary when measuring within narrow bands to avoid interference problems. Scanning achieves more reliable estimates of sound power and intensity vectors. Experimental design and the multivariate techniques, principal components analysis (PCA) and partial least squares (PLS) were utilised to facilitate interpretation of intensity measurements. The results show that PCA and PLS enable independent phenomena in the sound field to be extracted and which can thereby be visualised by principal spectra and principal radiating patterns. The characteristics of sound radiation are determined by designed experiments, sound intensity measurements and operational deflection shape estimations. These methods enable the effects on sound radiation of structure modifications to be predicted. An annoyance index for in-line 6-cylinder diesel engines in stationary running conditions was developed using multivariate statistics. The index is based on engine sounds resulting from structure modifications and changes in fuel. The annoyance level was measured during listening tests of sound stimuli recorded in stereo and reproduced by loudspeakers under anechoic conditions. The different sound stimuli were ranked using paired comparisons or the method of successive intervals. It was found that 94% of the variance of annoyance can be explained by a model based on loudness (Sone), sharpness (Acum) and harmonic ratio (rumble). Impulsiveness, roughness and tonality were other important criteria used in the study and which were found to have a relationship with specific speed ranges. The annoyance was minimised by an increase in stiffness in the lower part of the engine achieved by using a ladder frame in combination with a bearing beam.

Using a hearing protective device, feedback from the surroundings is of importance. Three aspects to be considered is the ability to communicate orally, the possibility to localize sound sources and to obtain a natural impression of the sounding environment. This could only be achieved by using a protective device that allow acoustic feedback, typically by a pair of microphones attached to the cup of each ear. The microphone signal is fed via an amplifier and an electronic compressor, that limit the amplitude of the signal fed to the loud speakers inside the cups. Typical problems with this type of solution are that the signals received by the two ears are distorted so much that sound localisation is difficult and that the sound is perceived unnatural. The objective of the project is to optimise the cup geometry especially where the microphones are mounted, and by that improve sound localisation and minimise the amplification of non-important weak sounds like the foot step of the user

Extreme sensitivity to noise is a problem that almost all autistic children suffer from. A sound that is extremely annoying does not need to be loud. However, the characteristics and temporal variations of these sounds are sparsely investigated. The aim of this study is to increase the knowledge about these extremely annoying sounds so they can be avoided by better design criteria for classrooms and venues like that. By interviewing teachers and parents a number of everyday sounds were identified and binaurally recorded. Examples are vacuum cleaners, ventilation noise, washing machines and pouring water. Detailed psychoacoustic analyses of this type of sounds were achieved by a listening test procedure in three parts. First 16 children composed different types of vacuum cleaner sounds trying to minimize annoyance in two different tests, a) keeping original sound pressure level. b) adjusting to acceptable loudness. In the second part, teachers working with autistic children performed a listening test to evaluate some of the composed sounds from part 1 and modified versions of them. The third part was performed by children to validate the results. The results showed that Roughness, Loudness and an index defined as High frequency tonality were the most important characteristics.

Design and optmiziation of ultrasonic reactors are important objectives in sonochemical processing. The recent expansion of the use of ultrasonic reactors in various research projects all faces the problem of scaling up laboratory results for industrial use. A traditional ultrasonic reactor usually has several issues, such as low effectiveness and complex and unstable system performance, which all are unfavorable for efficient sonochemical processing. This study adresses these issues and investigates a new flow type ultrasonic reactor designed to generate transient cavitation as the main source for ultrasound for sonochemical processing. This study proposes the principle of the flow type ultrasonic reactor design to generate transient cavitation. The objective of this work is to design an ultrasonic reactor with a new geometry. The idea is to improve process efficiency based on resonance enhanced ultrasound controlled cavitation

The project aims to use ultrasound controlled cavitation to achieve a more energy efficient leaching process. Locally, collapsing cavitation bubbles cause an extremely high pressure, shock waves and high temperature, which provide an opportunity to perform the leaching process at a much lower temperature than in an autoclave (20 bar overpressure and 220 ° C). The results show that the method works, but that a higher static pressure and thus temperatures are necessary to achieve a leaching recovery rate corresponding to today's autoclave technology. Another process parameter of importance is flow control and the initiation of cavitation bubbles that occur through a geometrically optimized nozzle (orifice plate). Numerical and experimental adaptation of the developed reactor with respect to the leaching conditions (Sodium hydroxide and Scheelite concentrate), required more time than expected. Best test results show that an energy supplement with ultrasonic controlled cavitation of 104 kWh / kg increases the leaching recovery by 21%. The leaching reagent temperature 60° C was determined regarding available reference data and was thought to be close to optimum for intensive cavitation in atmospheric pressure. Optimum temperature relates to the leaching reagent, vaporization temperature, density, boiling point, surface tension, and viscosity. Generally, for leaching is that higher temperatures are required to increase the chemical reaction rate (requires overpressure). The modified reactor principle provides stable results and is possible to scale up. Higher cavitation intensity for shorter finishing time and higher recovery rate require advanced flow induction, multiple excitation frequencies adapted to the optimized reactor geometry, as well as optimal process pressure and temperature.

The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of hydrodynamic and acoustic cavitation (HAC) on the leaching efficiency of tungsten. The aim is to reduce energy use and to improve the recovery rate. The goal is also to carry out a leaching process at a much lower temperature than in an autoclave process that is currently used in the industry. Energy-efficient initiation and collapse of cavitation bubbles require optimization of (i) vibro-acoustic response of the reactor structure, (ii) multiple excitation frequencies adapted to the optimized reactor geometry, and (iii) hydrodynamic cavitation with respect to orifice geometry and flow conditions. The objective is to modify and apply a previously in house developed high power cavitation reactor in order to recover tungsten by leaching of the dissolution of scheelite in sodium hydroxide. In this process, various experimental conditions like dual-frequency excitation, different orifice geometry have been investigated. The numerically optimized reactor concept was excited by two frequencies 23 kHz and 39–43 kHz in various flow conditions. The effects of leaching time, leaching temperature, ultrasonic power and geometry of orifice plates have been studied. The leaching temperature was varied from 40 °C to 80 °C. The concentration of leaching reagent sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was 10 mol/L.The results were compared to conventional chemical leaching. Energy supplement with acoustic cavitation of 130 kWh/kg concentrate resulted in a leaching recovery of tungsten (WO3) of 71.5%, compared to 36.7% obtained in absence of ultrasound. The results confirm that the method developed is energy efficient and gives a recovery rate potentially better than current autoclave technology.

Energy-efficient process intensification is a key aspect for a sustainable industrial production. To improve energy conversion efficiency high intensity cavitation is a promising method, especially in cases where the material to be treated is valuable and on the micro meter scale. Transient collapsing cavitation bubbles gives powerful effects on objects immersed in fluids, like cellulose fibers, mineral particles, enzymes, etc. The cavitation process needs optimization and control, since optimal conditions is multivariate challenge. This study focuses on different design principles to achieve high intensity cavitation in a specific volume in a continuous flow. This study explores some potential design principles to obtain energy efficient process intensification. The objective is to tune several different resonance phenomena to create a powerful excitation of a flowing suspension (two-phase flow and cavitation bubbles). The reactor is excited by sonotrodes, connected to two coupled resonant tube structures, at the critical frequency. Finally cavitation bubbles are initiated by a flow through a venturi nozzle. The acoustically optimised reactor geometry is modelled in Comsol Multiphysics®, and excited by dedicated ultrasound signals at three different frequencies. The effect of the high intensity cavitation is experimentally evaluated by calorimetric method, foil tests and degree of fibrillation on cellulose fibers.

The lower front end of a diesel engine is a major noise source. Describing the source mechanisms of this area is problematic as it consists of a rotating torsional vibration damper in front of the timing transmission cover and the oil sump. This experimental study focuses on the acoustic interaction phenomena between the damper and the structure behind it. To describe the source mechanisms a test series of different modifications by conventional lead wrapping technique is performed. The vibration behaviour of each substructure is determined by operational deflection shape measurements and the source strength for each modification is determined by near-field sound intensity measurements. The results show the contributions from different substructures and describes the interference effects due to coherent radiation. It is concluded that the radiation is dominated by the timing transmission cover structure behind the damper. At some frequencies though, the torsional vibration damper in combination with the timing transmission cover behind it, causes the high radiation. This effect is mainly due

Summary form only given. A complex sound source consists of several partial sound sources that all contribute to the total sound pressure. A method to separate these partial sound sources into separate time histories is based on inverse filtering of reciprocally measured transfer functions. The transfer functions are measured reciprocally between a number of fictitious monopoles on each partial source and measurement points distributed around the sound source. The method is divided into 5 steps: recording of sound pressure signals, measurement of transfer function, calculation of source strength matrix, calculation of filters and filtering of the recorded sound pressure signals. Correct estimations of the transfer functions are critical for inverse methods to work satisfactory. Normally the transfer functions in this case of studies are calculated as H1 because of the noise contribution to the responses. However, it has been suggested that inverse methods could benefit of using H2 instead. The objective of this investigation is to analyze the effect of selecting either H1 or H2 for the calculation of the transfer functions in case of auralization of separated time histories. For the experiments a complex sound source consisting of two separate cylinder heads with valve covers have been used. Each cylinder head with valve cover was treated as a partial source. The two partial sources were excited with two uncorrelated signals that could be controlled individually. By that, listening tests could be used to verify the authenticity of the separated source signals depending of the transfer functions were estimated as H1 or H2

Vehicle manufacturers are continuously seeking to improve vibration comfort. In this paper, subjective responses from transient vibrations in a forklift were analyzed on the basis of ISO 2631-1 and a number of additional variables. The objectives were to define: the effect of different operating conditions and appropriate background variables of subjects on perceived motions; the development of model that describes perceived discomfort as a function of measured vibrations; and important frequencies for prediction of vibration discomfort. The experiment was based on 12 different operating conditions defined by the variables: vehicle speed, obstacle height and load conditions. Eleven professional drivers participated and their responses of overall discomfort were defined by a vector sum of three perceived motions: shaking, for-aft and up-down motions. The evaluation method, maximum transient vibration value as defined in ISO 2631-1 was found to be adequate in predicting vibration discomfort during a four second transient vibration exposure. By analysis of narrow frequency band spectra of vibrations several explanations for the test results are discussed. The best results were obtained using a prediction model based on accelerations in -octave bands of pitch vibrations.

Judgments of annoyance caused by the sound of an idling diesel engine were determined by 80 subjects. The diesel-engine sounds were recorded and the spectra were subsequently modified electronically to produce various test signals. The subjects listened to eight different sounds in a paired-comparison procedure. Each sound signal was presented to the subjects at a time-averaged A weighted sound level of 80 dB. Two different prediction models of the annoyance response were developed by use of principal component analysis and partial least-squares regression. A new descriptor, the 'ear resonance range,' was discovered as a result of employing these analysis methods. The first prediction model, based on psychoacoustic measures, utilized the ear resonance range along with loudness and kurtosis to predict the annoyance judgments of the test signals. The second model utilized critical-band sound-pressure levels as the basis for the annoyance predictions. Both models were confirmed by internal and external validations and gave good predictions. The critical-band sound-pressure-level prediction model may provide a better means than the psychoacoustic-measure model to evaluate options for minimizing the annoyance of the sound from an idling diesel engine.

Annoyance response to vehicle noise is commonly reported by many people in society. A need to improve the sound quality of vehicles is therefore apparent. The engine is one of the most predominant sources of vehicle noise causing annoyance. Judgments of annoyance due to engine noise were made by 160 subjects in five separate listening tests. An M-S (mid-side) stereo microphone was used to record engine sounds under idling and running conditions for listening Tests A-C, and E. For listening test D, two microphones were used to record engine sounds in stereo under idling conditions. All sound stimuli were presented to the subjects through a pair of loudspeakers in an anechoic room. One of the listening tests was conducted using a paired comparisons method and the other listening tests were conducted using a sequential rating method known as the method of successive intervals. A prediction model of annoyance response was developed by the use of principal component analysis and partial least-squares regression. In this case, all original annoyance scores for all five separate tests were transformed into a common annoyance scale. The prediction model was based on three psychoacoustic descriptors: loudness, sharpness, and harmonic ratio. The model was validated internally and also externally by three new sound stimuli. The prediction of annoyance for these three sounds was found to be consistent when judged by 20 additional subjects. The model gave good predictions of annoyance judgments for 6-cylinder in-line engine noise.

Subjective annoyance response to diesel engine sound during idling conditions was evaluated by 80 participants. Eight different sound spectra were presented to the participants at a constant level of 80 dB(A) in a paired comparison procedure. Stereo recorded sound stimuli were played back through a pair of loudspeakers in an anechoic room. Four objective parameters of loudness, sharpness, impulsiveness, and roughness were found to be the determining factors that cause subjective annoyance. An annoyance prediction model for the test stimuli of an idling diesel engine was developed on the basis of these factors. The objective parameters and their interactions have a significant effect on the annoyance prediction model. The spectral distribution indicated by test participants to be pleasant can be used as a basis for appropriate modification of engine sound. A single microphone measurement in free field conditions can be used to estimate objective parameters for defining the cause of annoyance.

Annoyance judgments of engine sounds under six different fuel conditions were investigated using forty subjects. An equal number of males and females participated in the listening test. Thirty stereophonic recorded sounds were randomly presented to the subjects through a pair of loudspeakers. All sounds were recorded in a hemi-anechoic room. The listening test was conducted using a sequential rating method known as the method of successive Intervals. Tests for effects of the different fuels were made on the basis of non-parametric statistics. Engine sounds for an ethanol fuel with 9% Beraid were rated as least annoying whereas engine sounds for a mixture of diesel and ethanol fuels were rated as most annoying, The differences In annoyance judgments for different fuels at the same engine running speed could not be predicted using the annoyance index developed in an earlier study based on loudness, sharpness and harmonic ratio.