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  • 1.
    Huang, Yunbo
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Chuchala, D.
    Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Ship Technology and EkoTech Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Poland.
    Fredriksson, Magnus
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Svensson, Mikael
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Orlowski, K. A.
    Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Ship Technology and EkoTech Center, Gdańsk University of Technology, Poland.
    Coupling of Local Wood Properties Extracted from X-rayComputed Tomography with Cutting Force2023In: Proceedings of the 25th International Wood Machining Seminar / [ed] Gary S. Schajer, IWMS -25 Organizing Committee , 2023Conference paper (Refereed)
  • 2.
    Yu, Yingyue
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Yang, Haorang
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Du, Xiaohang
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Song, Meiqi
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Cutting Power, Temperature, and Surface Roughness: A Multiple Target Assessment of Beech during Diamond Milling2023In: Forests, ISSN 1999-4907, E-ISSN 1999-4907, Vol. 14, no 6, article id 1163Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Beech wood is a material commonly used for furniture, and cutting performance is the key to improving product quality and enterprise benefits. In this work, beech milling experiments using diamond cutters were carried out, and the changes in cutting power, temperature, and surface roughness were examined using the factor analysis method. The main results of this work are listed as follows: Firstly, a higher cutting speed and depth led to higher cutting power, temperature, and surface roughness. Meanwhile, cutting power and surface roughness were negatively related to the rake angle; however, cutting temperature first increased and then decreased with the increase in rake angle. Furthermore, cutting depth had greatest impact on the cutting power and surface roughness, followed by rake angle and cutting speed. Cutting speed had the greatest contribution to the cutting temperature, followed by cutting depth and rake angle. Only the cutting depth had a significant contribution to both cutting power, temperature, and surface roughness. Finally, optimal cutting parameters were determined to be a rake angle of 15°, cutting speed of 54 m/s, and depth of 0.5 mm. These values best meet the multiple objectives of lower cutting power, temperature, and surface roughness, which relate to superior product quality and enterprise benefits.

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  • 3.
    Song, Meiqi
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Yu, Yingyue
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Du, Xiaohang
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; Department of Computer and Information Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 8ST, UK.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Effects of Tool Tooth Number and Cutting Parameters on Milling Performance for Bamboo–Plastic Composite2023In: Forests, ISSN 1999-4907, E-ISSN 1999-4907, Vol. 14, no 2, article id 433Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Cutting force and temperature are critical indicators for improving cutting performance and productivity. This study used an up-milling experiment to ascertain the effect of tool tooth number, cutting speed, and depth on the machinability of bamboo–plastic composite. We focused on the changes in the resultant force and cutting temperature under different milling conditions. A response surface methodology was used to build prediction models for the resultant force and temperature. A verification test was conducted to prove the model’s reliability. The empirical findings suggested that the number of tool teeth had the most significant impacts on both the resultant force and the cutting temperature, followed by the depth of cut and the cutting speed. Moreover, the resultant force and cutting temperature showed increasing trends with decreasing numbers of tool teeth and increasing cut depths. However, cutting speed had a negative relationship with the resultant force and a positive relationship with temperature. We also determined the optimal milling conditions with the lowest force and temperature: four tool teeth, 300 m/min cutting speed, and 0.5 mm depth. This parameter combination can be used in the industrial manufacture of bamboo–plastic composite to improve tool life and manufacturing productivity.

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  • 4.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Zhang, Feng
    College of Mechanical Engineering, Wanjiang University of Technology, Maanshan, 243000, China.
    Yu, Yingyue
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Finite element method and its application to cutting processes of stone–plastic composite2023In: The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, ISSN 0268-3768, E-ISSN 1433-3015, Vol. 129, p. 4491-4508Article in journal (Refereed)
  • 5.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Yu, Yinyue
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Frictional behaviour of wood-Plastic composites against cemented carbide during sliding contact2023In: Wood Material Science & Engineering, ISSN 1748-0272, E-ISSN 1748-0280, Vol. 18, no 3, p. 1127-1133Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This study provides guidelines for the industrial machining of wood-plastic composites, focusing on their behaviour under friction, specifically when friction is caused by sliding contact with cemented carbide. Using the response surface method (RSM) to explore the correlation between the friction coefficient and the wood-plastic composite type, loading force, and reciprocating frequency, a series of frictional tests were performed. The significant contributions of each factor and their two-factor interactions were determined by analysis of variance (ANOVA), with a significance level of 5%, while trends in the variation of the friction coefficient were investigated by using a response surface methodology. The wood-plastic composite types had the greatest impact on the friction coefficient, followed by loading force and reciprocating frequency. A mathematical model (CoF = −0.10 + 0.09ω−0.02f+0.01Fn−0.01ωf+2.38×10−3ωFn−2.00×10−4Fnf+0.11ω2+2.96f2−1.04×10−4Fn2) was developed to accurately predict changes in the friction coefficient during machining of such composites. According to the results of the optimisation, wood-plastic composite with polypropylene should be machined with high-speed cutting, whereas those with polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride are recommended for low-speed machining, so as to ensure the lowest friction coefficient.

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  • 6.
    Wang, Jinxin
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Tang, Qi
    Mengtian Furnishings Co., Ltd., Jiashang, Zhejiang, 314100, China.
    Guan, Jun
    Mengtian Furnishings Co., Ltd., Jiashang, Zhejiang, 314100, China.
    Zhou, Xueliang
    Mengtian Furnishings Co., Ltd., Jiashang, Zhejiang, 314100, China.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Machining Properties of Stone-Plastic Composite Based on an Empirically Validated Finite Element Method2023In: Advanced Engineering Materials, ISSN 1438-1656, E-ISSN 1527-2648, Vol. 25, no 8, article id 2201386Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    High-cutting performance is an essential metric for improving the suitability of materials for industrial applications. Herein, the machining properties of stone-plastic composite are assessed through a finite element method to explore orthogonal cutting behavior by diamond cutters. The key aspects examined in this work are the effects of tool geometry and cutting parameters on the cutting force, temperature, chip formation, von Mises stress, and surface quality finish. Primary findings show that chip continuity increases proportionally with increase in rake angle but decreases with cutting speed and depth. Meanwhile, both cutting stability and surface quality are negatively correlated with cutting speed and depth but positively correlated with rake angle. These results support the adoption of cutting conditions using greater rake angle, higher cutting speed, and shallower cutting depth to obtain higher cutting performance, that is, greater cutting stability and surface quality in the finishing machining of stone-plastic composites.

  • 7.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wallentén, Petter
    Division of Building Physics, Department of Building and Environmental Technology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
    Sehlstedt-Persson, Margot
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Öhman, Micael
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Moisture- and mould-resistance: multi-modal modelling leveraging X-ray tomography in edge-sealed cross-laminated timber2023In: Materials & design, ISSN 0264-1275, E-ISSN 1873-4197, Vol. 230, article id 111967Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Edge-sealing, which involves treating the edges of wood products, improves water resistance. This study investigated the feasibility of edge-sealed cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels to reduce capillary water uptake, thereby resisting mould formation. The water and vapour permeabilities of ten characteristically different single-layer sealant coating systems were systematically determined. Multi-modal assessment leveraged by computed tomography (CT) scanning methodology was used to enhance detection of material characteristics beyond the standard coating permeability assessment. Moisture content was observed to change during the specimens’ absorption and desorption depending on the sealant system applied. The results revealed different characteristics of coatings during the water absorption and desorption stages. Findings from this study were used to develop recommendations regarding the water resistance of coating systems, curing time, susceptibility to mould formation, and industrial applicability. Results suggest that edge-sealed CLT could minimise the risk of mould formation, which can occur at worksites with minimal weather protection. The method developed in this study provides a basis to evaluate new coating systems and determine which use case is the best for a particular coating type. This study also incorporates insights from industry to identify future research orientations, which may pave the way for new designs and assessment techniques.

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  • 8.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Multivariate Image Analysis Applied to Cross-Laminated Timber: Combined Hyperspectral Near-Infrared and X-ray Computed Tomography2023In: Journal of Spectroscopy, ISSN 2314-4920, E-ISSN 2314-4939, article id 3954368Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Engineered wood products, such as cross-laminated timber (CLT), are becoming more popular in the designs of modern sustainable buildings. This increased production of CLT requires more robust, yet less labour-intensive means to assess the material characteristics of whole CLT panels. In exploring ways of improving efficiency, this study explores multivariate image analysis (MIA) via partial least squares discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) machine learning as a means to classify CLT material features. CLT panels underwent nondestructive testing using near-infrared (NIR) hyperspectral imaging and X-ray computed tomography (CT) analysis. MIA was performed on these results to build predictive models for wood features, such as fibre alignment and knot type. The models showed that it was possible to classify material features on the surface of CLT using NIR alone; whilst when combined with X-ray data, it enhanced the predictive ability of material features throughout the CLT volume. These first results from such modelling have the potential to help map the chemical and physical material properties of CLT, improving the manufacturing efficiency of the product and allowing greater sustainability of engineered wood products.

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  • 9.
    Yu, Yingyue
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Zhang, Feng
    School of Mechanical Engineering, Wanjiang University of Technology, Maanshang, People’s Republic of China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Song, Meiqi
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Wang, Jinxing
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Neuro-fuzzy assessment of machined wood fibre–reinforced magnesium oxide composite2023In: Wood Material Science & Engineering, ISSN 1748-0272, E-ISSN 1748-0280, Vol. 18, no 3, p. 1151-1159Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    High quality processing key to improving product quality and enterprise benefits. In this work, an adaptive network–based fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) was combined with milling experiments to understand the effects of tool geometry and milling parameters on the surface quality of wood fibre–reinforced magnesium oxide composite (WRMC). Specifically, changes in surface roughness (Ra) and damage of WRMC at different milling conditions were assessed using ANFIS and micro-analysis methods. Development of ANFIS models were confirmed to be reliable for predicting surface roughness. Changes in surface roughness at different milling conditions were determined, and the lowest surface roughness was obtained at the highest rake angle, highest cutting speed, and smallest milling depth. Furthermore, pitting-type damage irregularly distributed on the machined surface is attributed to the pulling out and debonding of wood fibres. Overall, high cutting speed, shallow cutting depth, and high rake angle is recommended for fine machining of WRMC where a smooth surface is desired. This study showcases how neuro-fuzzy models can be combined with conventional micro-analysis to optimize milling parameters for WRMC to minimize surface damage, and paves the way for future studies to optimize cutting tool life and energy consumption.

  • 10.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China; College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Zhu, Mengnan
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, People’s Republic of China.
    Built-up edge formation mechanisms in orthogonal cutting of wood-plastic composite2022In: Wood Material Science & Engineering, ISSN 1748-0272, E-ISSN 1748-0280, Vol. 17, no 5, p. 388-396Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This project aims to improve the machinability of wood-plastic composites by understanding chip and built-up edge formation, so as to help manufacturers optimize cutting performance and product quality. Chip formation and built-up edge were studied during orthogonal cutting of wood polyethylene composite with cemented carbide cutters under different conditions. During the orthogonal cutting process, segmental, ribbon, and element chips were generated. The cutting depth was found to have a great impact on the types of chips that formed. Additionally, a built-up edge was found during wood-plastic composite machining, with debris only attaching to the tool's rake face due to thermo-mechanical coupling. Such built-up edges hinder cutting stability and surface quality. Furthermore, variations in the accumulation of debris on the built-up edge corresponded to changes in cutting force and temperature. In fact, both cutting force and temperature proved to be inversely related to the rake angle and positively correlated to the cutting speed and depth. Therefore, to achieve better cutting stability and surface quality for wood-plastic composites, a larger rake angle and a reduced cutting depth are recommended because they reduce the accumulation of debris and the formation of built-up edge.

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  • 11.
    Jiang, Shangsong
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Tang, Qi
    Mengtian Home Group Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314100, China.
    Guan, Jun
    Mengtian Home Group Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314100, China.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; Department of Wood and Forest Sciences, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Mengtian Home Group Co., Ltd., Jiaxing 314100, China.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Wang, Xiaodong
    Department of Wood and Forest Sciences, Laval University, Quebec City, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
    Cutting Force and Surface Roughness during Straight-Tooth Milling of Walnut Wood2022In: Forests, ISSN 1999-4907, E-ISSN 1999-4907, Vol. 13, no 12, article id 2126Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Walnut (Juglans regia L.) is widely used in wood furnishings, and machinability is a key factor for improving product quality and enterprise benefits. This work focused on the influence of the rake angle, depth of cut, and cutting speed on the cutting force and machined surface roughness during the straight-tooth milling of walnut. On the basis of the experimental findings, a mathematical model was created using a response surface methodology to determine the relationship between the cutting force and the cutting conditions, as well as the relationship between the surface roughness and the cutting conditions. Variance analysis was used to study the significant contributions of the interactions of various factors and two-level interactions to the cutting force and surface roughness. The optimized combination of milling conditions, resulting in lowest cutting force and surface roughness, was determined to be a rake angle of 5°, a depth of cut of 0.6 mm, and a cutting speed of 45 m/s.

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  • 12.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Xiong, Xianqing
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Xu, Wei
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Energy Efficiency Optimization for Machining of Wood Plastic Composite2022In: Machines, E-ISSN 2075-1702, Vol. 10, no 2, article id 104Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Enhancing energy efficiency is the key to realizing green manufacturing. One major area of interest in this regard is the improvement of energy efficiency of machine tools during the production of building materials. This project focuses on energy efficiency during the spiral milling of wood plastic composites. To this end, a response surface method was adopted to develop a model and establish the relationship between energy efficiency and milling conditions. Analysis of variance based on individual factors as well as two-factor interactions was performed to gauge their effects on energy efficiency. It was found that milling depth was positively correlated to power efficiency, while spiral angle and feed per tooth displayed non-monotonic behavior. An attempt was made to predict milling conditions that will yield the greatest material removal rate and power efficiency. For wood plastic composites subjected to up-milling, it was determined that a feed per tooth of 0.1 mm, milling depth of 1.5 mm, and spiral angle of 70° were ideal. Considering the potential improvements in energy efficiency and surface quality that these process parameters will bring, it is strongly recommended for use in the industrial machining of wood plastic composites.

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  • 13.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    et al.
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Jin, Dong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, China.
    Investigation on Milling Quality of Stone–Plastic Composite Using Response Surface Methodology2022In: JOM: The Member Journal of TMS, ISSN 1047-4838, E-ISSN 1543-1851, Vol. 74, no 5, p. 2063-2070Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    To improve the cutting quality of stone–plastic composites, a series of milling experiments were performed using the response surface, binary, and microanalysis methodologies, paying special attention to the effects of milling parameters (rake angle from 6° to 14°, spindle speed from 5000 rpm to 7000 rpm, feed rate from 10 m/min to 20 m/min, and milling depth from 0.5 mm to 2 mm) on the quality of the machined surface. Surface damage was mainly concentrated on the crest and two axial sides of the milling wave, with cracking and pitting identified as the main damage patterns. These experiments determined that the optimal conditions for milling stone–plastic composite with minimal surface roughness are a rake angle of 10°, cutting speed of 37.9 m/s, feed per tooth of 0.32 mm, and milling depth of 0.5 mm. The mathematical model for surface roughness developed from these results is highly reliable and could be used for the prediction and optimization of surface roughness during industrial manufacturing of stone–plastic composites.

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  • 14.
    Zhu, Zhalong
    et al.
    Co‐Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Wu, Zhanwen
    College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Xu, Wei
    Co‐Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Co‐Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China; College of Materials Science and Technology, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
    Machinability of Different Wood-Plastic Composites during Peripheral Milling2022In: Materials, ISSN 1996-1944, E-ISSN 1996-1944, Vol. 15, no 4, article id 1303Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The aim of this study was to improve the machinability of wood-plastic composites by exploring the effects of different wood-plastic composites on machinability. In particular, the effects of milling with cemented carbide cutters were assessed by investigating cutting forces, cutting temperature, surface quality, chip formation, and tool wear. The cutting parameters determined to yield an optimal surface quality were rake angle 2°, cutting speed 9.0 m/s, feed per tooth 0.3 mm, and cutting depth 1.5 mm. In these optimized milling conditions, the wood-plastic composite with polypropylene exhibited the highest cutting forces, cutting temperature, and tool wear, followed by polyethylene and polyvinyl chloride wood-plastic composites. Two wear patterns were determined during wood-plastic composite machining, namely chipping and flaking. Due to the different material composition, semi-discontinuous ribbon chips and continuous ribbon chips were generated from the machining process of wood-plastic composites with polypropylene and polyethylene, respectively. The wood-plastic composite with polyvinyl chloride, on the other hand, formed needle-like chips. These results contribute to a theoretical and practical basis for improved wood-plastic composite machining in industrial settings.

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  • 15.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Cross-Laminated Timber Mechanics2021Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
  • 16.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    et al.
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, No. 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, No. 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Cutting forces and cutting quality in the up-milling of solid wood using ceramic cutting tools2021In: The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, ISSN 0268-3768, E-ISSN 1433-3015, Vol. 114, no 5-6, p. 1575-1584Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Although many studies have focused on the cutting performance of ceramic blades in processing different materials, few have reported on their application in wood processing. Thus, it is necessary to explore the cutting performance of ceramic tools in solid wood machining. The aims of this paper were to evaluate the cutting performance of Al2O3 and Si3N4 ceramic tools in the process of machining Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica Rupr.) and Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) by means of analysing cutting force and surface roughness and to provide guidelines for factories for applying ceramic tools in the manufacture of solid wood furniture. Up-milling tests were conducted for each combination of cutting speed, tool material, and workpiece material, and each combination was replicated five times. Results showed that (1) cutting force and surface roughness decreased with increase of cutting speed and (2) cutting force and surface roughness resulting from using Al2O3 ceramic cutting tools were larger than those of Si3N4 ceramic cutting tools, especially when cutting Manchurian ash with its extractives. Overall, ceramic tools can be used in high-speed cutting of solid wood. Compared with Al2O3 ceramic cutting tools, Si3N4 ceramic cutting tools are more suitable for cutting solid wood, especially those with extractives. Si3N4 ceramic tools provided not only chemical stability, but improved final product quality.

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  • 17.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wallentén, Petter
    Division of Building Physics, Department of Building and Environmental Technology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden.
    Sehlstedt-Persson, Margot
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Öhman, Micael
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Impregnation of Wood / End Grain Treatment2021Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    This research presents the findings of a study conducted by Luleå University of Technology (LTU) and Lund University (LTH) on the effect of edge treatment on the end grain of cross-laminated timber (CLT) elements. The objective of the study was to identify whether edge treatment influences the moisture performance and mould risk of CLT.The investigation was conducted through controlled laboratory studies, utilising standardised procedures. Specifically, the end grain of the CLT specimens was exposed to moisture by placing them in contact with a free water surface for 96 hours. Following this exposure, the specimens were dried under controlled conditions. X-ray computed tomography (CT) scanning was used to estimate the moisture content of the specimens and provide detailed spatial information about the moisture distribution within the wood.To further evaluate the effectiveness of edge treatment, the experimental moisture content assessments were compared to values by WUFI simulations. Additionally, annual data for the simulations were conducted using climate data from three different locations: Lund, Stockholm, and Borlänge. These simulations assessed the theoretical impact of edge treatment on mould risk under different climatic conditions.Results revealed that edge treatment has potential to reduce moisture content and mitigate mould risk in CLT elements. Experimentally assessed moisture content values were consistently lower in edge-treated specimens compared to untreated specimens. The calculations and simulations supported these findings, showing a distinct reduction in moisture accumulation and mould risk in edge-treated CLT elements.This study provides insights into the effect of edge treatment on the moisture performance and mould risk in CLT elements. The findings suggest that implementing appropriate edge treatment techniques can enhance the durability of CLT structures, particularly for worksites in regions where climatic conditions fluctuate over the course of construction. Further research and testing are warranted to explore additional factors influencing the effectiveness of edge treatment in CLT applications.

  • 18.
    Neyses, Benedikt
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Peeters, Kelly
    InnoRenew CoE, Livade 6, SI-6310, Izola, Slovenia.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Rautkari, Lauri
    Aalto University, P.O. Box 16300, 00076, Aalto, Finland.
    Sandberg, Dick
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    In-situ penetration of ionic liquids during surface densification of Scots pine2021In: Holzforschung, ISSN 0018-3830, E-ISSN 1437-434X, Vol. 75, no 6, p. 555-562Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The moisture-induced recovery of compressed wood is one of the major problems of wood densification technology. Achieving a cost-efficient surface densification process without the need for additional resins to eliminate the set-recovery may lead to an increase in value of low-density wood species. A previous study has shown that a pre-treatment with ionic liquids (ILs) can nearly eliminate the set-recovery. It was however observed that during the pre-treatment process the IL did not penetrate sufficiently deep into the wood to explain the achieved reduction in set-recovery. Based on these findings, the hypothesis was posed that further penetration of the IL into the wood occurs during the densification stage as a consequence of the applied heat and pressure. Thermo-gravimetric analysis (TGA) and gas-chromatography mass-selective-detection (GC-MSD) showed that the depth of penetration of the IL was greater after the densification process than before. Digital image correlation (DIC) showed that in regions with a high IL concentration, there was almost no set-recovery, and it gradually increased with a decrease in the IL concentration, as observed with TGA and GC-MSD analysis.

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  • 19.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    et al.
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, No. 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, No. 159 Longpan Road, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China.
    Guo, Yong
    College of Forest and Garden, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China.
    Machinability of wood fiber/polyethylene composite during orthogonal cutting2021In: Wood Science and Technology, ISSN 0043-7719, E-ISSN 1432-5225, Vol. 55, no 2, p. 521-534Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Wood fiber/polyethylene composite (WFPEC) is composed of a natural wood fiber and a recyclable polyethylene plastic, which is normally used as an environmental protection composite material. However, better knowledge of chip formation and surface damage mechanism of WFPEC is essential to improve its machinability for extending exterior and interior applications. In this article, machinability of WFPEC was investigated by analyzing the disparity between cutting efficiency and surface quality through a group of orthogonal cutting experiments with change of cutting depth. The chip formation process was recorded by a high-speed camera system with 5000 frames per second. Surface topography was observed by a scanning electron microscope. The results showed that the chip morphology changed from continuous cutting governed by a continuous shearing process under the shallow cutting depth, to a discontinuous cutting governed by plastic fracture under the deep cutting depth ahead of the tool tip. Flattened matrix was the main form of surface topography caused by shallow cutting depth, while matrix-fiber tearing was caused by deep cutting depth. Pullout/fracture and debonding of fibers were related to the fiber orientation angle and the diameter of fiber bundles, but not to the cutting depth. Taken together, the toughness of the workpiece material in the cutting region decreased with the increase in cutting depth. To avoid matrix-fiber tearing, shallow cutting depth should be used during finishing to maintain surface quality. In contrast, pre-cutting can be performed with a deep cutting depth in order to improve the cutting efficiency.

  • 20.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Assessment of Cutting Forces and Temperature in Tapered Milling of Stone–Plastic Composite Using Response Surface Methodology2020In: JOM: The Member Journal of TMS, ISSN 1047-4838, E-ISSN 1543-1851, Vol. 72, no 11, p. 3917-3925Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    In the machining of stone–plastic composites, the cutting efficiency and increased economy are important considerations. To this end, stone–plastic composite was up-milled using tapered cutters. Cutting forces and temperature were measured under varied angle geometries and cutting parameters. Response surface methodology allowed the analysis of changes in cutting forces and temperature, and the significant contributions of each variable and their two-level interactions were determined. Correlations between actual and predicted results were found by developing mathematical models for cutting forces and temperature, which can be used to make accurate predictions. Finally, the optimisation of cutting conditions for tapered milling stone–plastic composites by minimising cutting forces and temperature was determined as taper angle 75°, feed per tooth 0.44 mm and cutting depth 0.5 mm. It is proposed that these parameters be adopted in industrial machining for higher machining efficiency and lower production cost.

  • 21.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China. College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Wang, Jinxin
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Cutting performance in the helical milling of stone-plastic composite with diamond tools2020In: CIRP - Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology, ISSN 1755-5817, E-ISSN 1878-0016, Vol. 31, p. 119-129Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    With the aim of providing scientific guidance for the application of diamond cutting tools to the machining of stone-plastic composite, this work presents results on the influence of tool geometry and cutting parameters on cutting forces and temperature during helical milling of stone–plastic composite with diamond cutters. Four factors—helical angle, spindle speed, feed rate, and cutting depth—were assessed using a response surface method. Mathematical models were developed and identified by verification testing to accurately predict changes in cutting forces and temperature during composite helical milling. Then, the significant contributions of each factor and of two-factor interactions were determined by analysis of variance, and the trends of cutting forces and temperature were studied using response surface methodology. The optimal conditions in terms of low cutting forces and temperature were determined to be a helical angle of 70°, cutting speed of 51.3 m/s, feed per tooth of 0.24 mm, and cutting depth of 0.5 mm. These parameters are proposed for use in the industrial production of stone–plastic composite material to improve machining efficiency.

  • 22.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    College of Furnishings and Industrial Design, Nanjing Forestry University, 210037, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 210037, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Pingxiang, Cao
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, 210037, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    High-quality and high-efficiency machining of stone-plastic composite with diamond helical cutters2020In: Journal of Manufacturing Processes, ISSN 15266125, Vol. 58, p. 914-922Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Stone-plastic composite is a relatively new engineering material that is widely used in the decoration industry. Determination of the optimal machining conditions for this composite is important for the manufacturing industry. This work investigates the cutting quality of stone-plastic composite during helical milling with diamond cutters, focusing on the damage mechanism and surface roughness of the machined surface. Response surface methodology was used to model and establish the relationship between surface roughness and cutting conditions. Analysis of variance was adopted to study the significant contributions of each factor and two-factor interactions on surface roughness. An inclined U-shaped waviness was found on the machined surface, with damage patterns of cracking and pitting mainly located in the peaks of the cutting waves. The optimal combination for cutting was found to be a helical angle of 70°, cutting speed of 51.2 m/s, feed per tooth of 0.26 mm, and cutting depth of 0.72 mm; hence, these parameters are proposed for use in industrial stone-plastic composite machining for optimal cutting quality and machining efficiency.

  • 23.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering. Nanjing Forestry University, Coll Mat Sci & Engn, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Nanjing Forestry University, Coll Mat Sci & Engn, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    Nanjing Forestry University, Coll Mat Sci & Engn, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Effect of Cutting Speed on Machinability of Stone–Plastic Composite Material2019In: Science of Advanced Materials, ISSN 1947-2935, E-ISSN 1947-2943, Vol. 11, no 6, p. 884-892Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This research examined the orthogonal cutting of stone–plastic composite with diamond cutting tools. The objective was to quantify features relating to machinability, including cutting forces, cutting heat, chip formation, and machining quality with respect to cutting speed. The conclusions are as follows. An increased cutting speed promotes a decrease in the resulting force, causes cutting temperature to increase, makes the cutting processes more stable, and reduces the surface roughness. Chip-breaking length increases with an increase in cutting speed, and chip morphology changes from particle, to curve, to helical, and finally, to flow chips. Overall, a higher cutting speed is more suitable for machining stone–plastic composite materials: it not only increases the stability of cutting process, but also improves the final product of stone–plastic composite by promoting production of a smoother surface.

  • 24.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    et al.
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Xiaolei, Guo
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wang, Xiaodong Alice
    Department of Wood and Forest Sciences, Laval University, Quebec, Canada.
    Effect of rake angle on cutting performance during machining of stone-plastic composite material with polycrystalline diamond cutters2019In: Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, ISSN 1738-494X, E-ISSN 1976-3824, Vol. 33, no 1, p. 351-356Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This study investigates the effect of rake angle on cutting performance during machining of stone-plastic composite material with diamond cutters. To that end, an orthogonal cutting experiment was designed, in which stone-plastic composite material was planed by a polycrystalline diamond (PCD) cutter to produce chips. The features studied include cutting forces, cutting heat, chip formation and cutting quality. The conclusions are as follows: Firstly, increased rake angle causes frictional force and resulting force to decrease, promoting an increase in normal force. Secondly, during planing, cutting heat is primarily distributed in the chips, with less retained in the cutting edge, and the least retained in the machined surface. The temperatures of both cutting edge and chip decline with an increase in rake angle. Thirdly, as rake angle increases, chip morphology changes from segmental to curved and then to particle chips, with chip-breaking lengths first increasing and then decreasing. Finally, an increased rake angle leads a more stable cutting process and improved cutting quality. Therefore, with the precondition of blade strength, a diamond cutter with a larger rake angle can be used to machine stone-plastic composite to improve production quality by forming a smoother machined surface.

  • 25.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Full-Field Correlated Mechanics of Cross-Laminated Timber2019In: International Digital Image Correlation Society Conference And Workshop (iDICs 2019), International Digital Image Correlation Society , 2019Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    This work evaluated the effect of timber quality features on the full-field mechanics of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels. Panels were individuallysubjected to destructive out-of-plane loading in the principal panel orientation. A digital image correlation (DIC)-based technique was applied fornon-contact full-field measurement and analysis of panel mechanics. The results for 50 layers show that the stiffness of conventional CLT is largelyreduced by the shear resistance of transverse layers. Notably, heterogeneous timber features, such as knots, can reduce the propagation of shear.These results suggest an optimized panel assembly strategy that can be generalized: If shear is dimensioning in an area, e.g. the transverse or thecentral longitudinal layer, the use of knotty timber in that layers can reduce shear propagation. Knots in the compression zone in longitudinal layershave some negative impact, but knots have the largest negative impact in areas of longitudinal layers under tension. Therefore, it is suggested thecurrent grading criteria in the CLT standard be revised to allow the use of more knotty timber in the transverse layers of CLT; doing so could allowa more profitable use of otherwise low-grade timber while producing a stiffer product. The potential of panels constructed according to such anapproach may allow new applications for CLT in timber construction and should be further explored

  • 26.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, Jiangsu, China.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Machinability of stone-plastic materials during diamond planing2019In: Applied Sciences, E-ISSN 2076-3417, Vol. 9, no 7, article id 1373Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This paper investigated the machinability of a stone–plastic composite (SPC) via orthogonal cutting with diamond cutters. The objective was to determine the effect of cutting depth on its machinability, including cutting forces, heat, chip formation, and cutting quality. Increased cutting depth promoted an increase in both frictional and normal forces, and also had a strong influence on the change in normal force. The cutting temperatures of chips and tool edges showed an increasing trend as cutting depth increased. However, the cutting heat was primarily absorbed by chips, with the balance accumulating in the cutting edge. During chip formation, the highest von Mises strain was mainly found in SPC ahead of the cutting edge, and the SPC to be removed partially passed its elastic limit, eventually forming chips with different shapes. Furthermore, the average surface roughness and the mean peak-to-valley height of machined surfaces all positively correlated to an increase in cutting depth. Finally, with an increase in cutting depth, the chip shape changed from tubular, to ribbon, to arc, to segmental, and finally, to helical chips. This evolution in chip shape reduced the fluctuation in cutting force, improving cutting stability and cutting quality.

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  • 27.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering. College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering. College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Performance of stone-plastic composites with different mix ratios during orthogonal cutting2019In: Materials Express, ISSN 2158-5849, Vol. 9, no 7, p. 749-756Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The present study aimed to increase understanding of the machinability of stone-plastic materials with different mix ratios subjected to diamond planing. To that end, orthogonal cutting was carried out. Different stone-plastic materials were machined by diamond cutting tools to produce chips. Based on the results, four conclusions are drawn: (1) Among stone-plastic materials with decreasing polyvinyl chloride content ratio, the maximum cutting forces and fluctuation of dynamic forces show decreasing trends, and cutting stability increases. (2) The temperature of chips is slightly higher than that of tool edges; the cutting heat generated during machining is mainly absorbed by the chips of removed material and, to a lesser extent, stored in the tool edge. The type of stone-plastic material has a great effect on the changes in the temperatures of chip and tool edge. (3) With a decrease in polyvinyl chloride content, the chip shapes evolve from crack, to arc, and eventually to elemental chips. (4) The cutting quality of the machined surface improves with a decrease in the polyvinyl chloride content ratio of the stone-plastic materials.

  • 28.
    Zhaolong, Zhu
    et al.
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Marklund, Birger
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing.
    Cao, Pingxiang
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing.
    Zhu, Nanfeng
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing.
    Cutting forces and chip formation revisited based on orthogonal cutting of Scots pine2018In: Holzforschung, ISSN 0018-3830, E-ISSN 1437-434X, Vol. 73, no 2, p. 131-138Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    The objective of this study was to understandbetter the cutting forces and chip formation of Scots pine(Pinus sylvestris L.) with different moisture contents (MCs)and machined in different cutting directions. To thatend, an orthogonal cutting experiment was designed,in which Scots pine was intermittently machined usinga tungsten carbide tool to produce chips. The cuttingforces were measured and the chip shapes were quantitativelydescribed. Four conclusions can be drawn: (1)with increasing MC, the average cutting forces initiallydecreased and then stabilized, while the angle betweenthe direction of the main and the resultant force continuouslydecreased. (2) The average cutting forces in the 90°–0° cutting direction were lower than the same forces inthe 90°–90° cutting direction. (3) During machining, thedynamic cutting forces fluctuated less in the 90°–0° case.However, the dynamic feeding forces showed a decreasingtrend in both the 90°–0° and the 90°–90° cases. (4) Theprocess applied produced granule chips and flow chips,while less curly flow chips with a higher radius of curvaturewere more easily produced from samples with highMCs in the 90°–0° cutting direction.

  • 29.
    Zhu, Zhaolong
    et al.
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Guo, Xiaolei
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Ekevad, Mats
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Pingxiang, Cao
    College of Material Science and Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
    Wu, Zhenzeng
    Department of Material Engineering, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fujian, China.
    Machinability investigation in turning of high density fiberboard2018In: PLOS ONE, E-ISSN 1932-6203, Vol. 13, no 9, p. 1-13, article id e0203838Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    A series of experiments were conducted to assess the machinability of high density fiberboardusing cemented carbide cutting tools. The objective of this work was to investigate theinfluence of two cutting parameters, spindle speed and feed per turn, on cutting forces, chipformation and cutting quality. The results are as follows: cutting forces and chip-breakinglength decrease with increasing spindle speed and decreasing feed per turn. In contrast,surface roughness increases with decrease of spindle speed and increase in feed perturn. Chips were divided into four categories based on their shape: dust, particle, splinter,and semicontinuous chips. Chip-breaking length had a similar tendency to the varianceof cutting forces with respect to average roughness and mean peak-to-valley height: anincrease in the variance of cutting forces resulted in increased average roughness andmean peak-to-valley height. Thus, high cutting speed and low feed rate are parameters suitablefor high-quality HDF processing and will improve not only machining quality, but productionefficiency.

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  • 30.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Mechanics of Cross-Laminated Timber2018Licentiate thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    Increasing awareness of sustainable building materials has led to interest in enhancing the structural performance of engineered wood products. Wood is a sustainable, renewable material, and the increasing use of wood in construction contributes to its sustainability. Multi-layer wooden panels are one type of engineered wood product used in construction.

    There are various techniques to assemble multi-layer wooden panels into prefabricated, load-bearing construction elements. Assembly techniques considered in the earliest stages of this research work were laminating, nailing, stapling, screwing, stress laminating, doweling, dovetailing, and wood welding. Cross-laminated timber (CLT) was found to offer some advantages over these other techniques. It is cost-effective, not patented, offers freedom of choice regarding the visibility of surfaces, provides the possibility of using different timber quality in the same panel at different points of its thickness, and is the most well-established assembly technique currently used in the industrial market.

    Building upon that foundational work, the operational capabilities of CLT were further evaluated by creating panels with different layer orientations. The mechanical properties of CLT panels constructed with layers angled in an alternative configuration produced on a modified industrial CLT production line were evaluated. Timber lamellae were adhesively bonded in a single-step press procedure to form CLT panels. Transverse layers were laid at a 45° angle instead of the conventional 90° angle with respect to the longitudinal layers’ 0° angle.

    Tests were carried out on 40 five-layered CLT panels, each with either a ±45° or a 90° configuration. Half of these panels were evaluated under bending: out-of-plane loading was applied in the principal orientation of the panels via four-point bending. The other twenty were evaluated under compression: an in-plane uniaxial compressive loading was applied in the principal orientation of the panels. Quasi-static loading conditions were used for both in- and out-of-plane testing to determine the extent to which the load-bearing capacity of such panels could be enhanced under the current load case. Modified CLT showed higher stiffness, strength, and fifth-percentile characteristics, values that indicate the load-bearing capacity of these panels as a construction material. Failure modes under in- and out-of-plane loading for each panel type were also assessed.

    Data from out-of-plane loading were further analysed. A non-contact full-field measurement and analysis technique based on digital image correlation (DIC) was utilised for analysis at global and local scales. DIC evaluation of 100 CLT layers showed that a considerable part of the stiffness of conventional CLT is reduced by the shear resistance of its transverse layers. The presence of heterogeneous features, such as knots, has the desirable effect of reducing the propagation of shear fraction along the layers. These results call into question the current grading criteria in the CLT standard. It is suggested that the lower timber grading limit be adjusted for increased value-yield.

    The overall experimental results suggest the use of CLT panels with a ±45°-layered configuration for construction. They also motivate the use of alternatively angled layered panels for more construction design freedom, especially in areas that demand shear resistance. In addition, the design possibility that such 45°-configured CLT can carry a given load while using less material than conventional CLT suggests the potential to use such panels in a wider range of structural applications. The results of test production revealed that 45°-configured CLT can be industrially produced without using more material than is required for construction of conventional 90°-configured panels. Based on these results, CLT should be further explored as a suitable product for use in more wooden-panel construction.

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  • 31.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Mechanics of diagonally layered cross-laminated timber2018In: WCTE 2018 - World Conference on Timber Engineering, World Conference on Timber Engineering (WCTE) , 2018Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    This research evaluated the mechanics of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels with different layer orientations. A total of 20 industrially produced panels, configured with 0° longitudinal layers and transverse layers alternating at either ±45° or the conventional 90°, were tested. Each panel was subjected to destructive out-of-plane testing in the principal panel orientation to evaluate stiffness and strength in bending. Four-point bending tests showed higher stiffness and strength for panels with ±45° alternating layers compared to 90°. A non-contact full-field measurement and analysis technique based on digital image correlation (DIC) was utilised for the main mechanical analysis at different scales. DIC evaluations of 100 CLT panel layers showed that a considerable part of the stiffness of conventional CLT is reduced by the shear resistance of transverse layers. Heterogeneous wooden features, such as knots, reduce the propagation of shear fraction along the layers. These results call into question the present grading criteria in the CLT standard: It is suggested that the current lower grading limit be adjusted for increased value-yield. The overall experimental results suggest the use of CLT panels with a ±45° layered configuration would be beneficial for timber engineering construction. They also motivate the use of alternatively angled layered laminates in design and construction, especially in areas subjected to shear. Based on these results, CLT should be further explored as a suitable product to potentially facilitate the use of wooden panels in more construction applications.

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    fulltext
  • 32.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Production and In-Plane Compression Mechanics of Alternatively Angled Layered Cross-Laminated Timber2018In: BioResources, ISSN 1930-2126, E-ISSN 1930-2126, Vol. 13, no 2, p. 4029-4045Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Increasing awareness of sustainable building materials has led to interest in enhancing the structural performance of engineered wood products. This paper reports mechanical properties of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels constructed with layers angled in an alternative configuration on a modified industrial CLT production line. Timber lamellae were adhesively bonded together in a single-step press procedure to form CLT panels. Transverse layers were laid at an angle of 45°, instead of the conventional 90° angle with respect to the longitudinal layers’ 0° angle. Tests were carried out on 20 five-layered CLT panels divided into two matched groups with either a 45° or a 90° configuration; an in-plane uniaxial compressive loading was applied in the principal orientation of the panels. These tests showed that the 45°-configured panels had a 30% higher compression stiffness and a 15% higher compression strength than the 90° configuration. The results also revealed that the 45°-configured CLT can be industrially produced without using more material than is required for conventional CLT 90° panels. In addition, the design possibility that the 45°-configured CLT can carry a given load while using less material also suggests that it is possible to use CLT in a wider range of structural applications.

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  • 33.
    Buck, Dietrich
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Timber features’ impact on cross-layered structural panels’ full- field mechanics2018Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    This research evaluated the mechanics of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels. Industrially produced panels, configured with 0° longitudinal layers and transverse layers alternating at 90°, were tested. Each panel was subjected to destructive out-of-plane testing in the principal panel orientation to evaluate timber quality features’ impact on the full-field mechanics of CLT. A non-contact full-field measurement and analysis technique based on digital image correlation (DIC) was applied for the main mechanical analysis at different scales. DIC evaluation of 50 layers in CLT panels showed that a considerable part of the stiffness of conventional CLT is reduced by the shear resistance of transverse layers. Heterogeneous timber features, such as knots, reduce the propagation of shear fraction along the layers. These results call into question the present grading criteria in the CLT standard: It is suggested that the current lower grading limit be adjusted for increased value-yield. The measurements analysed in this work suggest an optimized panel assembly strategy that can be generalized. If shear is dimensioning in an area, as seen in the transverse or central longitudinal layer, the use of knotty timber can reduce the shear propagation. Knots in the compression zone in longitudinal layers have some negative impact, but knots have the largest negative impact in areas of longitudinal layers under tension. Therefore, the use of knotty timber is appropriate and recommended for the transverse layers of CLT. Based on these results, CLT should be further explored as a suitable product to potentially facilitate the use of timber panels in more construction applications. 

  • 34.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Mechanical Performance of Cross-Laminated Timber Panels with Alternated Layers2017Conference paper (Other academic)
    Abstract [en]

    This research assessed the mechanics of cross-laminated timber (CLT) panels with different alternating layer directions. A total of 20 industrially produced panels, configured with 0° longitudinal layers and transverse layers alternating at either ±45° or at 90° were subjected to destructive testing in bending. Four-point bending tests showed higher stiffness and strength for panels with ±45° alternating layers compared with the conventional 90° crosswise configuration. A noncontact numerical cross-correlation full-field measurement technique based on digital image correlation (DIC) was used as the main method of analysis for determining the mechanics in different scales. The results of the DIC analysis showed that the shear strain in bending was a more critical parameter in 90° layers than in adjacent 0° longitudinal layers of conventional configurations. Results infer that the use of CLT panels with ±45° can be beneficial to timber engineering construction and can induce an increase in the use of alternating layer laminates, especially in areas with shear.

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  • 35.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wang, Alice
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Gustafsson, Anders
    SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, SP Sustainable Built Environment, Skellefteå, Sweden, SP Trätek, SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, Skellefteå.
    Bending Properties of Cross Laminated Timber (CLT) with a 45° Alternating Layer Configuration2016In: BioResources, ISSN 1930-2126, E-ISSN 1930-2126, Vol. 11, no 2, p. 4633-4644Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Bending tests were conducted with cross laminated timber (CLT) panels made using an alternating layer arrangement. Boards of Norway spruce were used to manufacture five-layer panels on an industrial CLT production line. In total, 20 samples were tested, consisting of two CLT configurations with 10 samples of each type: transverse layers at 45° and the conventional 90° arrangement. Sample dimensions were 95 mm × 590 mm × 2000 mm. The CLT panels were tested by four point bending in the main load-carrying direction in a flatwise panel layup. The results indicated that bending strength increased by 35% for elements assembled with 45° layers in comparison with 90° layers. Improved mechanical load bearing panel properties could lead to a larger span length with less material.

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  • 36.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wang, Alice
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Gustafsson, Anders
    SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, SP Sustainable Built Environment, Skellefteå.
    Further Development of Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT): Mechanical Tests on 45° Alternating Layers2016In: WCTE 2016 : Proceedings, Vienna: Vienna University of Technology, Austria , 2016Conference paper (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

     

    In this paper, a series of experimental bending and compression tests were performed on cross-laminated timber (CLT) products with ±45° alternating layers, to evaluate their performance against conventional panels of 90° orientation. Engineered wood products, such as CLT with ±45° alternating layers can provide opportunities for greater use in larger and more sustainable timber constructions. A total of 40 panels, manufactured in an industrial CLT production line with either of these two configurations, were tested and compared. Panels were evaluated in bending tests n=20 and the remaining ones in compression tests. Results showed that 35% increased the strength in the four-point bending tests for panels containing ±45° alternating layers compared with the 90° alternating layers. Compression strength was increased by 15%. Stiffness increased by 15% in the four-point bending and 30% in the compression. The results indicate that CLT containing ±45° alternating layers has increased strength and stiffness compared to 90° alternating layers. These findings suggest that further developments in CLT are feasible in advanced building applications.

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  • 37.
    Buck, Dietrich
    et al.
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Wang, Xiaodong (Alice)
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Hagman, Olle
    Luleå University of Technology, Department of Engineering Sciences and Mathematics, Wood Science and Engineering.
    Gustafsson, Anders
    SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden, SP Sustainable Built Environment, Skellefteå, Sweden.
    Comparison of Different Assembling Techniques Regarding Cost, Durability, and Ecology - A Survey of Multi-layer Wooden Panel Assembly Load-Bearing Construction Elements2015In: BioResources, ISSN 1930-2126, E-ISSN 1930-2126, Vol. 10, no 4, p. 8378-8396Article in journal (Refereed)
    Abstract [en]

    Wood is a pure, sustainable, renewable material. The increasing use of wood for construction can improve its sustainability. There are various techniques to assemble multi-layer wooden panels into prefabricated, load-bearing construction elements. However, comparative market and economy studies are still scarce. In this study, the following assembling techniques were compared: laminating, nailing, stapling, screwing, stress laminating, doweling, dovetailing, and wood welding. The production costs, durability, and ecological considerations were presented. This study was based on reviews of published works and information gathered from 27 leading wood product manufacturing companies in six European countries. The study shows that the various techniques of assembling multi-layer wooden construction panel elements are very different. Cross laminated timber (CLT) exhibited the best results in terms of cost and durability. With regard to ecological concerns, dovetailing is the best. Taking into account both durability and ecological considerations, wooden screw-doweling is the best. These alternatives give manufacturers some freedom of choice regarding the visibility of surfaces and the efficient use of lower-quality timber. CLT is the most cost-effective, is not patented, and is a well-established option on the market today.

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