Additive manufacturing (AM) is rapidly emerging as a feasible manufacturing method. The material is deposited in a layer-by-layer approach, enabling complex-shaped parts to be manufactured. However, the printed parts are typically distorted to some extent due to the residual stresses from the manufacturing stage. These residual stresses are a result of the material’s temperature fluctuations during the layer-by-layer deposition: as the material is heated, it expands, and when cooled, it shrinks. To address this issue, models have been developed capable of simulating the entire AM process. By employing modeling techniques, process optimization can be achieved by identifying suitable process parameters, eliminating the need for time-consuming trial-and-error experimentation. One of the enabling technologies to these models is the finite element method (FEM) where the deposited material and build plate is treated as a continuum discretized by finite elements (FE). This work provides an overview of the finite element models for AM and the couplings that can be made to predict the residual stresses and distortions of printed components more accurately. The coupling can be made on different scales, including the micro-, meso-, or part-scale. Micro-scale finite element models coupled with cellular automata models (FE-CA), initially developed by Gandin and Rappaz (1997), can predict the grain texture after solidification. Meso-scale models such as thermal models can predict the temperature history from the chosen scanning strategy. Subsequently, thermo-mechanical models can predict residual stresses and distortions. When it comes to predicting the distortions on a part-scale level, thermo-mechanical layer-by-layer lumping and inherent strain method can be used to reduce the computational time. The coupled thermo-mechanical FE models can be used with a physically based material model which is based on the material’s dislocation structure. For example, Lindgren et al. (2017) developed a dislocation density-based plasticity model. Here, FE-CA models can provide information about the grain orientation and grain size which are important parameters involving the strain hardening in a physically based model where the Taylor orientation factor is needed, and the Hall-Petch effect where the grain size is needed. Phase composition can be provided by a thermo-metallurgical model. Furthermore, the change in dislocation density is proportional to the plastic strain rate which is obtained from the meso- or part-scale thermo-mechanical model itself. Additionally, thermal activation can assist dislocations when passing obstacles such as precipitates or solutes, hence the prediction of an accurate temperature field is an important input to the physically based model.

REFERENCES:

Gandin, Ch.-A., Rappaz, M., 1997. A 3D Cellular Automaton algorithm for the prediction of dendritic grain growth. Acta Materialia. pp. 2187-2195.

Lindgren, L.-E., Hao, Q., Wedberg, D., 2017. Improved and simplified dislocation density based plasticity model for AISI 316L. Mechanics of Materials. pp. 68-76.

The grain texture of the as-printed material evolves during the laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) process. The resulting mechanical properties are dependent on the obtained grain texture and the properties vary depending on the chosen process parameters such as scan velocity and laser power. A coupled 2D Cellular Automata and Finite Element model (2D CA-FE) is developed to predict the evolution of the grain texture during solidification of the nickel-based superalloy 625 produced by PBF-LB. The FE model predicts the temperature history of the build, and the CA model makes predictions of nucleation and grain growth based on the temperature history. The 2D CA-FE model captures the solidification behavior observed in PBF-LB such as competitive grain growth plus equiaxed and columnar grain growth. Three different nucleation densities for heterogeneous nucleation were studied, 1 × 1011, 3 × 1011, and 5 × 1011. It was found that the nucleation density 3 × 1011 gave the best result compared to existing EBSD data in the literature. With the selected nucleation density, the aspect ratio and grain size distribution of the simulated grain texture also agrees well with the observed textures from EBSD in the literature.

Cold pilgering is a complex forming process used to produce seamless tubes in terms of modeling due to the complexity in kinematic of tools, friction condition and material behavior. The process development has mostly been based on simple formulas and costly full-scale tryouts. The aim in this study is to develop validated Finite element models of cold pilgering to support design of a robust process.

A three-dimensional thermo-mechanical Finite element models of cold pilgering has been developed in the course of the work leading to this thesis. The commercial code MSC. Marcwas used in the simulations. General 3D models are needed to be able to capture asymmetric deformation in cold pilgering. Elastic deflections of tools and roll stand were included in the model via linear and nonlinear springs that were calibrated versus experiments. A temperature dependent Chaboche type plasticity model was employed in this simulation to mimic strain hardening and softening behavior under multidirectional loading. The model parameters were optimized using multi-directional compression and uni-directional tensile tests. Heat exchange between tools and lubricant was included in the simulation via heat convection films on the surfaces. The film parameters were calibrated using experimental data. Simulation predictions for hardening, rolling force, process temperature and geometry were compared with experiments for validation purposes. The predictions showed overall good agreement with validation experiments enabling the use of this model for understanding and improving the process.

In view of developing a physics-based constitutive material model for AA7075-T651, the mechanical behavior and microstructure evolution of the material has been studied through compression tests using Gleeble thermo-mechanical simulator. The tests were performed at wide range of temperatures (room temperature (RT), 100, 200, 300, 400 and 500 °C) with two constant strain rates (0.01 and 1 s-1). The true stress-strain curves depicted an increase in the flow stress with increase in the strain rate and decrease in the deformation temperature, with an exception at RT. The effects of softening mechanisms, such as adiabatic heating, dissolution of precipitates, dynamic recovery (DRV) and dynamic recrystallisation (DRX), on the flow stress level, strain rate sensitivity (SRS) and temperature sensitivity over the entire range of temperatures were analyzed. Pertaining to the microstructure analysis, the intermetallic particles present in the initial as-received (AR) material were identified as (Al,Cu)6(Fe,Cu) and SiO2 with the help of back-scattered electron (BSE) imaging and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS). The microstructure of the material after the deformation processes were analyzed and compared with that of the AR state using inverse pole figures (IPF), grain orientation spread (GOS) and grain boundary rotation maps generated from electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD) scans. DRV was observed for deformation at 300 °C, whereas a combination of DRV and incomplete DRX took place for 400 and 500 °C depending on the strain rate. The fraction of recrystallized grains was higher in case of deformation at higher temperature and lower strain rate. Furthermore, the difference in microstructure evolution on different surfaces of the deformed samples as well as at different locations on individual surfaces was also investigated.

The current study presents the effects of strain and temperature on the mechanical response and microstructure evolution in AA7075-T651 at high strain rates. Compression tests have been performed at room temperature (RT), 200, 300 and 400 °C using a Split-Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) setup with strain rates ranging between 1400 and 5300 s⁻¹. For deformation at RT, the flow stress increases with increase in strain rate. Whereas deformation at elevated temperatures show a non-monotonous behavior of the flow stress with respect to the strain rate. This trait is attributed to the pronounced effects from the adiabatic shear bands (ASBs); namely, distorted shear bands (DSBs) and transformed shear bands (TSBs); and cracks resulting from the plastic deformation instability during hot deformation. The sequence of microstructure evolution is: inhomogeneity in the initial microstructure – DSB – TSB – crack –fracture. The feasibility of formation and growth of ASBs and cracks increases with increase in strain and temperature, neglecting any significant effect from the strain rate. During the compression tests, temperature of the material rises due to adiabatic heating. Considering a certain strain developed in the material, this adiabatic temperature rise decreases as the deformation temperature is increased. Furthermore, during individual deformation processes, the temperature rise increases with increasing strain. The adiabatic temperature leading to the formation of TSB is approximated to be 0.7 times of the melting temperature of the alloy. These results from the current study are to be used in developing a physics-based material model for the alloy.

Induction heating is used in many industrial applications to heat electrically conductive materials. The coupled electromagnetic-thermal induction heating process is non-linear in general, and for ferromagnetic materials it becomes challenging since both the electromagnetic and the thermal responses are non-linear. As a result of the existing non-linearities, simulating the induction heating process is a challenging task. In the present work, a coupled transient electromagnetic-thermal finite element solution strategy that is appropriate for modeling induction heating of ferromagnetic materials is presented. The solution strategy is based on the isothermal staggered split approach, where the electromagnetic problem is solved for fixed temperature fields and the thermal problem for fixed heat sources obtained from the electromagnetic solution. The modeling strategy and the implementation are validated against induction heating experiments at three heating rates. The computed temperatures, that reach above the Curie temperature, agree very well with the experimental results.

Driven by current safety and weight reduction policies in the automotive sector, the development of new high strength sheet metal products has experienced unprecedented growth in the last years. With the emergence of these high strength materials, new challenges related to their limited ductility and higher cracking susceptibility have also raised. Accordingly, the development of new fracture criteria accounting for the material's cracking resistance has become unavoidable. In this work, a new cracking resistance index (CRI) based on fracture mechanics is proposed to classify the crack propagation resistance (i.e. the fracture toughness) of high strength metal sheets. The index is based on the fracture energy obtained from tensile tests with sharp-notched specimens. The procedure is very fast and simple, comparable to a conventional tensile test, and it may be used as routine testing for quality control and material selection. The CRI is investigated for several advanced high strength steel (AHSS) sheets of 0.8-1.6 mm thickness with tensile strengths between 800 and 1800 MPa. The results show that the proposed index is suitable to rank high strength steel sheets according to their crack propagation resistance and it can be correlated to the material's crashworthiness and edge cracking resistance.

Press Hardening offers the possibility to obtain a wide range of mechanical properties through microstructural tailoring. This strategy has been successfully applied in thin sheet components, for instance, through differential cooling strategies. The application of these added value features to truck components implies adapting the process to the manufacture of thick sheet metal. This introduces an additional layer of complexity, but also opportunity, in a process where the final microstructure and, thus the mechanical performance is generated in the press shop. This work presents a study on optimizing the crash worthiness and impact energy absorption on a press hardened thick 22MnB5 steel sheet. Different microstructure design strategies have been studied, including ferrite-Pearlite (representative of a differential heating and austenitization strategy), in-die generated Bainite (representative of differential cooling) and Tempered Martensite (generated through laser tempering), keeping a fully hardened martensite as a reference condition. The material performance has been compared in terms of the monotonic properties, useful for anti-intrusion performance, and Essential Work of Fracture, a well-suited parameter to predict the crash failure behavior of high strength steels. The results show that laser tempering offers properties similar to Bainite-based microstructures and can be a successful replacement in components where the sheet thickness does not allow for the fine control of the in-die thermomechanical evolution.

The generation of reliable data in the high cycle fatigue domain is crucial to support further metallurgic developments of fatigue optimized steel grades. Commonly employed for this aim, traditional standardized characterization methods are expensive and time-consuming. Thus, to circumvent these limitations, different accelerated fatigue testing methodologies have been proposed. In this work, the rapid fatigue test based on stiffness evolution is numerically reproduced using the finite element method for a specific grade of twinning-induced plasticity steel. A high cycle fatigue constitutive law grounded on the continuum damage mechanics framework is employed for this purpose. To adequately capture the material non-linear behavior observed in the experiments, a novel hardening–softening stress–strain curve for damage is proposed. The entire load history in the fatigue domain is modeled. A cycle-jump algorithm is used to improve the computational efficiency of the simulations. It is shown that a reduction of about 55% in the analysis elapsed time is reached by using this algorithm, while the result accuracy is maintained. Finally, the good agreement between numerical and experimental results, revealed by a maximum relative error smaller than 6.0%, evidences the potential of the present constitutive formulation to model the behavior of metals in the high cycle fatigue domain.

Shear cutting, such as punching and trimming, of sheet metals is a widely used process in the automotive and heavy-duty vehicle industry due to low running costs and low cycle times. It's known that the edge properties obtained from this process has an impact both on formability and fatigue resistance of the formed part. The purpose of this contribution is to present a novel methodology for simulation of shear cutting processes taking a simplistic and phenomenological approach, resulting in an industry feasible simulation setup, simulation time and experimental workload. The task of simulating shear cutting processes includes high nonlinearities, large deformations, and crack propagation. A common approach is to use extensive material characterization to feed a material model including failure. Several specimen geometries are investigated to capture different stress states, resulting in a test and simulation matrix that could be overwhelming for industrial users. In this work it was investigated if a single tensile test and a punching test could be used for calibration of a material model including plastic flow and failure. Three different high strength materials were investigated using different cutting clearances and sheet thicknesses, one aluminium alloy and two complex phase steels. Characterization of the resulting cut edges were used for validation of the simulation results. It is shown that good agreement between simulation and experiments is achieved in terms of punch force and displacement. The main characteristics of the cut edge is also captured. Hence, using this simplified approach for simulation of shear cutting processes could reduce time to market and development cost for implementation of new materials by providing information about the process effects to a minimum of simulation and experimental effort.

Effect from manufacturing processes on fatigue properties of high-strength thick steel sheets have gained increased attention the recent years, due to new demands on the heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) industry to reduce the carbon footprint. The aim of this study is to add knowledge of the effect of shear cutting clearance on the fatigue behaviour of complex phase CP800 thick steel sheets. In addition, sandblasting and its effect on the fatigue properties are studied. Service loads are fluctuating loads acting on chassis component making fatigue an important failure mode. The fatigue strength usually follows the yield strength of the material and hence weight could in theory be saved by using steels of higher strength. However, in the presence of edge defects this relation does not necessarily hold, this leads to large safety factors of the design and under-utilization of the high-strength material. Thus, an increased knowledge about the effect from manufacturing processes on fatigue properties is important for the quest to achieve weight reduction. This is particularly true for thick sheets which, to the best of our knowledge, are less investigated than their thinner counterparts, but of high importance for the HDV development.

In this paper, empirical results from fatigue testing of complex phase steel CP800, subjected to punching and trimming, are presented. Results for different cutting clearances are compared as well as the effect of sandblasting. A fast fatigue testing method called Rapid fatigue test based on stiffness evolution is utilized. The results show the improvement obtained by using sandblasting as well as illustrating the effect of different cutting clearances. These results can be used as a guidance for design and production of HDV components, where cutting clearance is set. Furthermore, the results can be used as an input for discussions whether the extra costs associated with sandblasting is motivated or not for components made from high strength, thick steel sheets.

This paper presents a validated finite element modeling approach for simulating shear cutting, needing a minimal amount of experimental characterization. Only one uniaxial tensile test and one force–displacement relationship from a punching experiment are needed for calibration, with maintained prediction accuracy compared to more experimentally demanding approaches. A key ingredient is the observation that the Lode angle parameter is close to zero in the fracture region, postulating that the fracture strain only depends on stress triaxiality, with one free calibration parameter. The true stress–strain behavior is provided from inverse modeling of the tensile test, whereas the fracture model is calibrated using the punching test. The model is verified for different materials by comparing force–displacement curves for punching experiments not used in the calibration. The prediction error for the intrusion is below 4%. A validation is made for two setups. The local residual stresses are measured using Focused Ion-Beam Digital Image Correlation (FIB-DIC). The simulated values are within the experimental bounds. Cut edge morphology and plastic strains obtained by nano-indentation mappings are compared to simulation results, showing a decent agreement. For trimming, the cut edge morphology prediction performance decreases at 17% cutting clearance while it is maintained over the whole range for punching. The predicted hardness values have a mean absolute percentage error below 7.5%. Finally, the effect of element size and remeshing is discussed and quantified. The minimal experimental characterization and simulation effort needed, enables an efficient optimization of the cutting process in the industry.

Legislative demands force the automotive industry to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. At the same time, crashworthiness must not be compromised. A ve-hicle’s GHG emissions, such as carbon dioxide, is dependent on its fuel consump-tion. Lowering the vehicle weight, reducing fuel consumption, will therefor reduce emissions. Thus, high performance lightweight materials and structures are on demand. Several methods for achieving high-performance lightweight components are available. One of the most successful approaches has been replacing mild steels with press-hardened steels, e.g. ultra high strength steels (UHSS). In the press-hardening process, a low-alloyed boron steel blank is austenitized followed by simultaneously forming and cooling. By controlling cooling rates, a martensitic microstructure can be obtained, resulting in components with superior properties compared to mild steels. Other methods of achieving lightweight components in-clude the usage of sandwich structures where stiff skins are bonded to a low-density core. In the present thesis, several types of sandwich structures are studied both numerically and experimentally. A UHSS sandwich with a bidirectionlly corru-gated core, intended for stiffness application, is manufactured and evaluated in three-point bending. Finite element models are utilized to recreate the three-point bend test. A large amount of finite elements are required for precise discretization of the core. The number of finite elements are reduced by replacing the sandwich with an homogeneous, equivalent model with input data obtained from analyzing representative volume elements (RVEs) of the core, subjected to periodic and ho-mogeneous boundary conditions. Good agreement is found between experiments and finite element models. A UHSS sandwich with a partly perforated core is evaluated numerically for energy absorption applications. Several hole configu-rations for the core are evaluated with respect to specific energy absorption. A fracture criterion is utilized for the sandwich skins. Computational time is re-duced by homogenization of the core using a stress-resultant based constitutive model. It is found that the sandwich concept allows for an increase in specific energy absorption and that the computational time can be reduced while still be-ing able to predict energy absorption. An experimental methodology is developed for mechanical characterization of micro-sandwich materials. Tools are developed for loading the micro-sandwich in out-of-plane tension and shear, where digital image correlation is used for measuring displacements fields and fracture of the micro-sandwich core. Statistical methods are adopted for analyzing the variation in the mechanical properties of the micro-sandwich from which statistical means may be obtained. The experimental data is used as input for constitutive models, simulating the micro-sandwich material subjected to peeling, using a T-peel test. The numerical models are validated against experiments, found to agree within one standard deviation, suggesting that the experimental methodology produces robust data.The present work has thus presented methods, further increasing the usability of UHSS with regard to lightweighting, and explored how such components may be simulated numerically with adequate accuracy and reasonable computation time. Furthermore, the present thesis contributes by presenting methods for character-izing micro-sandwich materials, including statistical methods for analyzing scatter in mechanical properties, and how such sandwich materials may be modeled, tak-ing elasto-plasticity and damage into account. These results opens up possibilities for further development and optimization of lightweight constructions.

Sandwich structures are commonly used to increase bending-stiffness without significantly increasing weight. In particular, micro-sandwich materials have been developed with the automotive industry in mind, being thin and formable. In the present work, it is investigated if micro-sandwich materials may be modeled using commercially available material models, accounting for both elasto-plasticity and fracture. A methodology for calibration of both the constitutive- and the damage model of micro-sandwich materials is presented. To validate the models, an experimental T-peel test is performed on the micro-sandwich material and compared with the numerical models. The models are found to be in agreement with the experimental data, being able to recreate the force response as well as the fracture of the micro-sandwich core.

Lightweight components are in demand from the automotive industry, due to legislation regulating greenhouse gas emissions, e.g., CO2. Traditionally, lightweighting has been done by replacing mild steels with ultra-high strength steel. The development of micro-sandwich materials has received increasing attention due to their formability and potential for replacing steel sheets in automotive bodies. A fundamental requirement for micro-sandwich materials to gain significant market share within the automotive industry is the possibility to simulate manufacturing of components, e.g., cold forming. Thus, reliable methods for characterizing the mechanical properties of the micro-sandwich materials, and in particular their cores, are necessary. In the present work, a novel method for obtaining the out-of-plane properties of micro-sandwich cores is presented. In particular, the out-of-plane properties, i.e., transverse tension/compression and out-of-plane shear are characterized. Test tools are designed and developed for subjecting micro-sandwich specimens to the desired loading conditions and digital image correlation is used to qualitatively analyze displacement fields and fracture of the core. A variation of the response from the material tests is observed, analyzed using statistical methods, i.e., the Weibull distribution. It is found that the suggested method produces reliable and repeatable results, providing a better understanding of micro-sandwich materials. The results produced in the present work may be used as input data for constitutive models, but also for validation of numerical models.

Interlayers in asphalt pavements are potential structural damage initiators. In order to better understand the quantitative role of interlayer parameters, such as surface roughness, binder type, binder content and loading type on interlayer shear strength, this paper focuses on the effects of particle interlock and contact conditions on interlayer strength through experimental and numerical modelling. Experimentally, interlayer shear box strength tests on a model material consisting of stiff binder blended with steel balls are performed with and without normal force confinement. A Discrete Element method model of the test is developed using measurements of the model material for calibrating the contact law and for validating the model. It is shown that this model captures adequately the measured force-displacement response of the specimens. It is thus a feasible starting point for numerically and experimentally studying the role of binder and tack coat regarding interlayer shear strength of real asphalt layers.

The automotive industry is currently adapting to a new reality, where anthropogenic emissions need to decrease significantly. To meet present and future demands of vehicle design, press harden-ing techniques to produce complex geometries with high strength and ductility as well as good precision are of great interest. New generations of hot forming steels enable both further weight reductions by using thinner sheets as well as better crash performance due to its ability to improve the structural integrity of the body-in-white. To promote the use of these new steel grades, it is important to study their performance using well-instrumented lab scale test of full-scale compo-nents. Since these tests are often time consuming and expensive, calibrating constitutive models with tensile specimens and using finite element analysis is a more cost-effective alternative. How-ever, these calibrated models should be validated against full-scale experiments to verify their effectiveness in predicting the material behaviour in complex crash environments. In this paper, a high-speed 3D digital image correlation experiment is performed on a crash box under axial com-pression. The material is a hot forming steel grade with a specified tensile strength of 1000 MPa. The axial crash tests are modelled based on a visco-plastic model calibrated by high-speed tensile tests. The computed results in terms of force response and obtained deformations agree well with the corresponding measurements.

To promote the use of newhigh-strengthmaterials in the automotive industry, the evaluation of crashworthiness is essential, both in terms of finite element (FE) analysis aswell as validation experiments. Thiswork proposes an approach to address the crash performance through high-speed imaging combined with 3D digital image correlation (3D-DIC). By tracking the deformation of the component continuously, cracks can be identified and coupled to the load and intrusion history of the experiment. The so-called crash index (CI) and its decreasing rate (CIDR) can then be estimated using only one single (or a few) component, instead of a set of components with different levels of intrusion and crushing. Crash boxes were axially and dynamically compressed to evaluate the crashworthiness of TRIP-aided bainite ferrite steel and press-hardenable steel. Acalibrated rate-dependent constitutivemodel, and a phenomenological damage model were used to simulate the crash box testing. The absorbed energy, the plastic deformation, and the CIDR were evaluated and compared to the experimentally counterparts. When applying the proposed method to evaluate the CIDR, a good agreement was found when using CI:s reported by other authors using large sets of crash boxes. The FE analyses showed a fairly good agreement with some underestimation in terms of energy absorptions. The crack formation was overestimated resulting in too high a predicted CIDR. It is concluded that the proposed method to evaluate the crashworthiness is promising. To improve the modelling accuracy, better prediction of the crack formation is needed and the introduction of the intrinsic material property, fracture toughness, is suggested for future investigations and model improvements.

Edge cracking has become a limiting factor in the use of some advanced high strength steels (AHSS) for high-performance automotive applications. This fact has motivated the development of a multitude of experimental tests for edge formability prediction over the last years. In this sense, the Hole Expansion Test (HET) according to ISO16630 has been established in the automotive industry as a standard procedure for edge cracking sensitivity ranking. However, whereas it may be useful for rapid material screening, the results are often not accurate and reliable enough. Consequently, alternative methods based on Digital Image Correlation (DIC) have been proposed aimed at improving the prediction of edge cracking occurrence during forming and obtaining useful strain data that can be implemented in forming simulations. This paper explores the applicability of different DIC-based methods, such as Half-Specimen Dome Tests, Sheared Edge Tensile Tests, and KWI hole expansion tests with a flat nosed punch, for characterizing the edge formability of three cold-rolled AHSS sheets. The results obtained from the different testing methods are compared and validated with a laboratory-scale demonstrator. Finally, the limitations and advantages of the different methods are discussed.

For the reduction of the environmental footprint of Heavy-Duty vehicles (HDV), lighter chassiscomponents can be considered. A lighter HDV chassis gives the opportunity of lower fuel consumption, increased payloads, and savings of material resources. One way of achieving this, is to reduce thicknesses of components in combination of using higher strength steels. For the aim of forming UHSS into complex geometries the need to characterize thick sheet metal at elevated temperatures arises. This work aims at expanding earlier research of characterization of thinner sheet metal and create a testing methodology for tensile tests of 7 mm thick steel sheets at elevated temperatures. An experimental methodology for evaluating high strength steel under warm conditions have been developed and demonstrated. A Digital Image Correlation system is used to extract strain fields for all three testing temperatures. This together with an automatized induction system pre-defined temperature cycles are applied. When the desired Hollomon-Jaffe constant is obtained the tensile test is executed. The methodology shows promising results with good repeatability of stress-strain curves. The methodology shows good stability and are promising for future development and investigations of high strength steels under warm forming conditions.

The prediction of transient granular material flow is of fundamental industrial importance. The potential of using numerical methods in system design for increasing the operating efficiency of industrial processes involving granular material flow is huge. In the present study, a numerical tool for modelling dense transient granular material flow is presented and validated against experiments. The granular materials are modelled as continuous materials using two different constitutive models. The choice of constitutive models is made with the aim to predict the mechanical behaviour of a granular material during the transition from stationary to flowing and back to stationary state. The particle finite element method (PFEM) is employed as a numerical tool to simulate the transient granular material flow. Use of the PFEM enables a robust treatment of large deformations and free surfaces. The fundamental problem of collapsing rectangular columns of granular material is studied experimentally employing a novel approach for in-plane velocity measurements by digital image correlation. The proposed numerical model is used to simulate the experimentally studied column collapses. The model prediction of the in-plane velocity field during the collapse agrees well with experiments.

The joint between different lightweight materials plays a significant role in multi-material design of structural components for the automotive industry, aiming to reduce the vehicle's weight without compromising performance or safety. Yet, conventional mechanical joining technologies between metals and Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers (CFRP) result in either a hole being drilled in the composite material, leading to damages which reduce the load bearing capacity, or the weight of the part being increased due to the incorporation of fasteners. At the same time, alternative mechanical joining methodologies involve complex and costly processing, hindering their industrial application. This work presents a new, simple, cost-efficient and non-weight penalizing mechanical joining technology between a metal sheet and fibre reinforced polymer prepregs consisting of a single-step punching process. In this process, the metallic sheet is completely perforated, while the prepreg is not. The punch pushes the carbon fibres through the metallic hole, with no, or minimal fibre breakage, generating a mechanical interlock. The shear strength and the absorbed energy of the co-cured joint increase with the incorporation of the mechanical interlocking joint.

In the multi-material lightweight design of structural components for the automotive industry, the joint between different materials plays a significant role in reducing vehicle weight without compromising performance or safety. Conventional technologies to mechanically join metals and carbon fibre reinforced polymers result in either drilling a hole in the composite material or increasing the weight of the part because of the fasteners employed. This work presents a new, simple, cost-efficient and non-weight penalizing mechanical joining technology for metal sheets and fibre reinforced polymer prepregs. It consists of a single-step punching process where the metallic sheet is completely perforated, but the prepreg is not. The punch pushes the carbon fibres through the hole in the metal sheet with no or minimal fibre breakage, generating a mechanical interlock which, in turn, increases the shear strength and absorbed energy of the co-cured joint.

Efficient separation of valuable metals from various slags is of great interest for the industry to effectively utilize valuable raw materials. Present work focuses on modeling the deformation and damage behavior of manganese containing slag materials at the microstructural level, which dictates the macroscopic material behavior and allows one to investigate possibilities to perform metal separation after comminution of the slags. The model includes finite element micromechanical description of the material behavior and slag microstructure. Computational micromodels are constructed based on direct input characterization data and statistically representative synthetic models. The damage model treats brittleness and ductility of the material together with phase specific material behavior, all relevant to comminution of the slag. Finally, a simplified jaw crusher simulation accounts for freeing materials, assisting the evaluation of empirical random breakage, all together with a microstructural particle study which is analyzed against micromechanical modeling. Crystal plasticity level simulations of surface deformation and hardening in jaw crusher are presented to couple macroscale crushing events with microscale deformation of wear parts. The work overall presents a workflow and proposes a methodology how digitalization and multi-scale material modeling can contribute to the development of efficient comminution means for hard to process secondary raw materials.

Additive manufacturing by laser-based powder bed fusion is a promising technique for bulk metallic glass production. But, reheating by deposition of subsequent layers may cause local crystallisation of the alloy. To investigate the crystalline phase evolution during laser scanning of a Zr-based metallic glass-forming alloy, a simulation strategy based on the finite element method and the classical nucleation theory has been developed and compared with experimental results from multiple laser remelting of a single-track. Multiple laser remelting of a single-track demonstrates the crystallisation behaviour by the influence of thermal history in the reheated material. Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy reveals the crystalline phase evolution in the heat affected zone after each laser scan. A trend can be observed where repeated remelting results in an increased crystalline volume fraction with larger crystals in the heat affected zone, both in simulation and experiment. A gradient of cluster number density and mean radius can also be predicted by the model, with good correlation to the experiments. Prediction of crystallisation, as presented in this work, can be a useful tool to aid the development of process parameters during additive manufacturing for bulk metallic glass formation.

The development of process parameters and scanning strategies for bulk metallic glass formation during additive manufacturing is time-consuming and costly. It typically involves trials with varying settings and destructive testing to evaluate the final phase structure of the experimental samples. In this study, we present an alternative method by modelling to predict the influence of the process parameters on the crystalline phase evolution during laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB). The methodology is demonstrated by performing simulations, varying the following parameters: laser power, hatch spacing and hatch length. The results are compared in terms of crystalline volume fraction, crystal number density and mean crystal radius after scanning five consecutive layers. The result from the simulation shows an identical trend for the predicted crystalline phase fraction compared to the experimental estimates. It is shown that a low laser power, large hatch spacing and long hatch lengths are beneficial for glass formation during PBF-LB. The absolute values show an offset though, over-predicted by the numerical model. The method can indicate favourable parameter settings and be a complementary tool in the development of scanning strategies and processing parameters for additive manufacturing of bulk metallic glass.

The continuous development of the press hardening technology has led to stronger, lighter and more environmentally friendly components. Utilising the varying properties of boron steel at different temperatures enables great design freedom, while also attaining high strength in the final component. This is achieved by heating the initial material to an austenitic state, where it has good formability, followed by forming and quenching using pressing tools. However, in order to simulate this thermo-mechanical process the microstructure evolution must be understood. Research has been performed using various initial material states, evaluating possible effects on the final mechanical properties. Studies have also been performed to evaluate the grain growth during austenitisation. The influence of the initial material and the evolution of the austenite morphology during austenitisation has previously been less researched compared to other parts of the process.

In this work, samples from commercially available materials have been heat treated to create test specimens, which subsequently have been used for mechanical testing and microstructure analysis. Digital image correlation was used to determine local fracture strains and anisotropic properties during plastic deformation. Samples were also heat treated using varying process parameters in order to study the grain growth during austenitisation. It was found that if hot rolled, cold rolled and soft annealed cold rolled samples were compared after hardening, their mechanical properties only exhibited minor variations. However, all samples displayed anisotropic properties during plastic deformation. There is therefore some microstructural trace from the production which is unaffected by soft annealing, austenitisation and subsequent quenching. The grain growth observed during the austenitisation was consistent within a temperature range not exceeding 930 ◦C. Using data retrieved from isothermal experiments a model could be fitted which described the growth using the temperature and current grain size. At 960 ◦C the microstructure was irregular, with large single grains and considerable variations in the average grain size within the same sample. The bending performance was not affected in a major way by the austenitisation temperature.

The lack of variation of the mechanical properties due to the initial microstructure or parent austenite grain size is a testament to the robustness of the process. It should be noted however, that all samples were rapidly quenched. If the microstructure is formed through diffusion dependent phase transformations, the final mechanical properties could be more sensitive to process parameters. Further research is needed to fully understand the microstructural evolution and thus the mechanical properties where a more general thermal cycle can be used.

Lithium-ion batteries experience charge capacity loss during their lifecycle caused by mechanical phenomena. In this study, a discrete element method (DEM) simulation model, to link the local mechanical behaviour in the positive electrode active layer to its global mechanical properties, was developed. DEM is a suitable method to use as the electrode active layer has a granular structure and the model includes contact formulations for the active particles and the binder domain. Simulations of the calendering process and the measurement of the active layer's global mechanical properties is possible with the framework. The model developed can capture the pressure sensitivity of the active layer, which has been observed in experiments.

This thesis presents finite element (FE) simulations of additive manufacturing (AM) and physically based material modeling of alloy 625 and alloy 718. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in AM and there has been a dramatic increase in publications in the field. AM can be beneficial compared to conventional manufacturing methods in many applications. The method offers short component lead times and large design freedom with the possibility to create complex components. Alloy 625 and alloy 718 are nickel-based superalloys used in high-temperature applications owing to their high-temperature strength. The materials are difficult to manufacture by conventional machining due to rapid tool wear and low material removal rates. Thus, the alloys are appropriate for the AM technology with its near-net shape potential.Owing to the rapid heating and solidification in the AM process, residual stresses are induced in the component. This is a well-known problem and causes distortion of the samples when removing them from the build plate. The residual stresses may also deteriorate the fatigue properties. It is important for the manufacturer to understand how the choice of process parameters and scanning strategy affect the residual stresses to minimize those and improve the quality of the components. Simulation can be used as a tool while developing the process parameters and support the experimental efforts. FEM is generally the preferred method for simulation of deformations and residual stresses in AM. The simulation technique used when modeling AM has its origin from welding simulations that was performed already since the beginning of 1970. However, it is not possible in practice to simulate an AM process in the traditional way due to a large number of elements and time increments to be calculated. This is especially true for the laser-based powder bed fusion (PBF-LB) process where the process of a full-scale part may comprise many thousands of added layers, and the passes are lengthy relative to their thicknesses and widths.The aim of this thesis work is to develop FE simulation techniques that reduce the computational effort when modeling residual stresses in AM processes to enable simu-lation of full-scale parts. This has been done with thermo-mechanical FE-models using different lumping techniques e.g., lumping of layers and lumping of hatches. Lumping of layers and hatches means that several physical layers, or several physical hatches, are merged and added in one modeled layer or hatch respectively. Lumping allows fewer time steps and a coarser mesh which reduces the computational effort. An existing mechanism based flow stress model has been developed to fit the mechanisms typical for alloy 625 and alloy 718 and implemented in the FE model. Also, synchrotron X-ray diffraction was performed to measure the residual stress for comparison with the models. The stress was extracted from the diffraction data using the full Debye ring fitting method.In this work, using the lumping techniques described above, it was possible to simu-late AM processes with up to physical 1500 layers. For different process parameter sets and scan strategies, thermal behavior, deformation and residual stresses have been mod-eled and compared with experiments. Using the lumping of layer technique resulted in modeled residual stresses showing the same trend as measured stresses from synchrotron X-ray diffraction for two different process parameter sets. Utilizing lumping of hatches, the resulting deflection in a part was modeled successfully for different scanning strate-gies. In the modeling, the larger deflection was seen for the samples printed with the scanning direction parallel to the long-side which was also shown experimentally.The results in this work shows that the presented lumping approaches are promising when it comes to modeling of the deformations and residual stresses in AM. Using lumping approaches, it is also possible to simulate different scanning strategies for processes of larger parts. The description of the mechanical behavior of the material is improved, using the mechanism based material model, compared to when the flow stress was modeled with tabulated data, since it takes mechanisms as viscoplasticity and stress relaxation into account. The mechanism based model includes microstructural information as grain size and solutes and can thus more easily be combined with a microstructure model. The combination of the mechanism based material model and the use of lumping techniques is thus an advance in the development of predictive models of the AM process.

Residual stresses in metal additive manufactured components are a well-known problem. It causes distortion of the samples when removing them from the build plate, as well as acting detrimental with regard to fatigue. The understanding of how residual stresses in a printed sample are affected by process parameters is crucial to allow manufacturers to tune their process parameters, or the design of their component, to limit the negative influence of residual stresses. In this paper, residual stresses in additive manufactured samples are simulated using a thermo-mechanical finite element model. The elasto-plastic behavior of the material is described by a mechanism-based material model that accounts for microstructural and relaxation effects. The heat source in the finite element model is calibrated by fitting the model to experimental data. The residual stress field from the finite element model is compared with experimental results attained from synchrotron X-ray diffraction measurements. The results from the model and measurement give the same trend in the residual stress field. In addition, it is shown that there is no significant difference in trend and magnitude of the resulting residual stresses for an alternation in laser power and scanning speed.

Sheet metals are often used in automotive and aerospace applications for safety-relevant components. Weight reduction is one possibility to reduce fuel consumption or increase the payload capacity and therewith reduce the carbondioxide emission of these trans-portation vehicles. The weight reduction can be achieved by using new sheet metal alloys and thereby reducing the sheet metals thickness. Advanced material process-ing technologies like for example the press hardening process to manufacture ultra high strength steels (UHSS) are an important contribution to weight reduction. Furthermore, the usage of many different sheet metal materials and grades, like the new generation of advanced high strength steels (AHSS) and aluminium alloys will replace further low strength steel components.To challenge the balance between safety and weight reduction, while maintaining safety, reliable and efficient engineering tools are needed. Finite Element (FE) simulations are commonly used to prove a maintained safety for parts with a decreased sheet thickness and weight. This leads to a high demand on the simulation precision of sheet metals, where an accurate prediction of the failure behaviour and the post-necking hardening of materials is needed. Therefore, an approach on material model calibration for modelling of sheet metal deformation and failure is developed. The ability for companies to predict the performance envelop of all these new sheet metal alloys and components is of great importance for the metal manufacturer as well as for the automotive industry.In this thesis work a method to characterize the elasto plastic post necking behaviour of sheet metal materials, the Stepwise Modelling Method (SMM), is presented. The method uses full field measurements of the deformation field on the surface of tensile specimen. The hardening relation is modelled as a piecewise linear relation in a step by step procedure. The linear hardening parameter is adapted to reduce the residual between experimental and calculated tensile forces. The SMM is used to characterize the post necking behaviour of a ferritic boron steel and the results are compared with the commonly used inverse modelling method. It is shown that the stepwise modelling method characterizes the true stress, true plastic strain relation in an effective and com-putational efficient way. Furthermore, the SMM is used to characterize the stress state evolution during tensile testing, which is an important factor for failure and fracture mod-elling. This method is shown in an aerospace application for the nickel based super alloy Alloy 718. A study on simulating the whole comments lifespan from blank to fractured component is presented by producing a laboratory scale UHSS-component and testing it until fracture. The component performance simulation is based on results obtained by SMM for paint baked fully hardened boron steel. To enable the post necking characterization of anisotropic sheet metals like aluminium alloys an updated SMM version based on an anisotropic plasticity model is presented and evaluated for the aluminium alloys AA6016 and AA5754. Finally, the fracture behaviour of an automotive 6000 series alu-minium alloy in different directions is presented. In this study a GISSMO failure model is calibrated based on full field measurements under different stress states and evaluated on a multi triaxiality tensile specimen.The results shown in this thesis are that the presented Stepwise Modelling Method is an effective and efficient alternative method to characterize the deformation and failure of sheet metals. Based on the results of this method plasticity and fracture models can be calibrated and used for advanced forming and component performance simulations. This can lead to reduce time and costs during the development processes of new materials and products.

Modelling and simulation are important tools during design and development processes. For accurate predictions of, e.g. manufacturing processes or final product performance, reliable material data is needed. Usually, the applied material models are calibrated by utilising direct methods such as conventional uniaxial tensile/compression tests but also inverse methods are occasionally applied. Recently, an effective inverse method, the stepwise modelling method (SMM), was presented. By using SMM, the flow stress from initial yielding, beyond necking to final fracture, can be determined. However, the method is developed for sheet materials having isotropic von Mises hardening. In this paper the SMM is extended for post necking characterisation of anisotropic sheet metals using the Barlat yield 2000 criterion. The novel method was applied to analyse the post necking plasticity of the widely used aluminium alloy AA6016 in T4 condition and the aluminium alloy AA5754 in H111 condition. The latter alloy has reported to show serrated yielding, also known as the Portevin–Le Chatelier effect. The obtained flow stress curves agree well with the curves form conventional uniaxial tensile tests up to the point of necking and show credible post necking predictions to final fracture. Furthermore, SMM showed that it could handle the effect of serrated yielding for AA5754-H111. Hence, the novel approach can be used to characterise the post necking hardening of a variety of anisotropic sheet metals and thereby contributes to efficient and reliable material model calibration.