In this paper, we study attitudes in Sweden to bringing back an extinct species, the aurochs (Bos primigenius), which once played an important role in European forest ecosystems. This is done using a willingness-to-pay approach, and examining whether willingness to pay for restoring the aurochs is related to the restoration technology (breeding programme or gene editing programme) adopted. Attitudes to de-extinction vary significantly across individuals, but are in general relatively positive, with 59% of respondents stating a willingness to pay for such efforts for the aurochs. Female respondents are more reluctant than males to contribute to the gene-editing technology. However, aside from this gender effect, the technology used (breeding or gene editing) does not affect average WTP, but we generally find acceptance of the idea of de-extinction as well as higher WTP among younger individuals, and especially among members of environmental organisations.

This doctoral thesis consists of an introductory preface and four independent papers, addressing and examining different aspects of crowdfunding. The papers focus on the role of perceptions, signalling and gender effects in influencing the outcomes for environmentally oriented crowdfunding initiatives. Paper 1 investigates how an average backer's perceptions of a crowdfunding project's environmental characteristics impact funding outcomes. The empirical analysis is based on data from 406 projects, and four individuals' independent assessments of each project's degree of different environmental characteristics. There is partial evidence that projects perceived as environmentally beneficial are more successful than others in securing funding. However, evidence shows that signalling a project as environmentally beneficial negatively affects crowdfunding outcomes, regardless of whether the project is perceived as genuinely environmentally beneficial or as using greenwashing tactics. Thus, project owners ought to be cautious with making environmental claims to market their projects. In Paper 2, voluntary crowdfunding donations are used as a payment vehicle to examine the attitudes for restoring the aurochs, an extinct keystone species. By reintroducing the aurochs, some ecosystem services could be restored. However, de-extinction could be viewed as "unnatural" by the general public, potentially harmful for the legitimacy of conservation policy. The paper investigates whether attitudes towards restoring the aurochs are dependent on the de-extinction technique: breeding or gene editing. The empirical data are based on a split-sample contingent valuation survey of over 2000 individuals, and the findings indicate that while the de-extinction technique does not affect crowdfunding donations on average, women are more reluctant than men to donate to the project if it employs a gene-editing technology. Additionally, the results indicate large heterogeneity in willingness to pay; however, in general, higher willingness to pay is found amongst younger individuals and within members of environmental organisations. Paper 3 focuses on gender effects in donation crowdfunding for an environmentally oriented initiative. Specifically, the study investigates potential gender bias against the project owner, as well as gender differences amongst backers. The results are based on a split-sample contingent valuation survey of over 1600 respondents, where half of the respondents were presented with a male project owner, and the other half was presented with a female project owner. The results suggest there is no gender bias in funding decisions: both project owners were equally likely to secure funding for their initiatives. Additionally, there was little evidence of gender differences between respondents. Instead, other respondent and project characteristics, such as age, latent environmental attitudes and requested donation amount, affect the decision to contribute to the environmental crowdfunding project. Paper 4 also investigates gender biases against the project owner, however, in a lending crowdfunding setting. The study employs a split-sample choice experiment, presenting an energy technology demonstration project. While such projects are generally led by men, the split-sample survey allows for alternating the gender of the project owner. The study investigates whether risk signals and project attributes are interpreted differently based on the gender of the entrepreneur. The results are based on responses from 2000 individuals, and indicate little evidence of gender bias. However, male respondents are more likely to invest in a project in which a female project owner has established a network to collaborate with, but are also more negative towards a project with a female leader who has no such collaboration.

The integration of the Nordic timber markets has been analysed to provide market information to various decision-makers, e.g., climate and industrial policies and investment decisions. This study addresses the interlinkage between Nordic (Sweden, Norway and Finland) roundwood markets (Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.)) and Norway spruce ((Picea abies L.) sawlogs and pulpwood). In total, eleven markets were analysed using quarterly data over the period 2006Q1–2017Q4 where various unit root and stationary tests were performed together with Johansen’s cointegration test. In addition, directional causality analyses between the integrated markets were also performed. The results show that the law-of-one-price (LOP) hypothesis can be rejected for most of the studied markets and that no individual market emerges as the price-leader. Only the Swedish and Norwegian pine sawlog markets are integrated suggesting a single market for both countries. Price affecting national and forest-related policies as well as investments in the forestry sector, forest industries, bioenergy sector and other forest product using sectors, will not disperse into a larger international market structure; instead, the price effect will be national and more likely have a more profound effect.

Skogens användningsområden har fluktuerat med tiden. Det nationella skogsprogrammet från 2018 beskriver vikten av ett ekonomiskt-, socialt- och miljömässigt hållbart skogsbruk för ett hållbart samhälle. Skogen är av stor betydelse för den växande cirkulära, biobaserade ekonomin, likväl för flertalet industrier och människans välbefinnande. Syftet med det nationella skogsprogrammet är att stödja de många olika näringarna med bas i skogen, för att ”skogen, det gröna guldet, ska bidra med jobb och hållbar tillväxt i hela landet samt till utvecklingen av en växande bioekonomi” (Regeringskansliet, 2018).

Skogsnäring i Sverige definieras idag som skogsbruk samt skogsindustri. Definitionen innefattar således till största del de industriråvaror som härstammar från träden. Eftersom samhället och skogspolitiken förflyttat sig från att ha varit koncentrerad uteslutande mot träförädlingsindustrin till att även inkludera ett starkare fokus på annan biobaserad produktion och ekosystemtjänster, är dagens traditionella definition av skogsnäringen inte tillräckligt omfattande. Dagens definition utesluter flertalet näringar som har sin bas i skogen, samt andra direkta- och indirekta antropocentriska nyttor, exempelvis rekreationsvärden och biodiversitet. Nyttan som den skogen bidrar till är således undervärderad i dagens definition av skogsnäring.

Norrbotten är ett skogsrikt län och skogen är av stor betydelse för Norrbotten finansiellt, men den är även viktig i en social aspekt för invånarna. När skogens värden inte är tillfullo synliggjorda finns risker att somliga värden förbises vid politiska beslut, och en felaktig allokering av resurserna kan ske. Det är således viktigt att definitionen av Norrbottens skogsnäring diskuteras. Genom användandet av en bredare definition av skogsnäringen kan en mer rättvisande bild av skogens bidrag till Norrbotten uttydas, och dess roll för länets framtida utveckling utvärderas.