Controlling early age thermal cracking in hardening Low-Carbon Concrete (LCC) casted in extreme weatherrequires precise modelling of its maturity, strength and heat development. The existing engineering-orientedmodels are useful for Portland Cement Concretes, but their accuracy for LCC is still unclear. Moreover, study-ing the dependence of LCC maturity parameters on whether mechanical or heat tests are implemented is also ofinterest. In response, this investigation proposed enhanced modelling techniques targeting a proper strength,heat, maturity, and cross-over effect assessment of LCC, including slag, limestone, superplasticizer, and air-entrainment. The models were calibrated using compressive, tensile, semi-adiabatic and isothermal calorim-etry tests. Moreover, a novel Activation Energy (Ea) function was proposed, accounting for its hydrationdependence, here referred to as aging. The proposed models represent improvements for the evaluation of LCC assuggested by comparison against classical approaches. For instance, they better capture the extended dormantperiod of LCC. Furthermore, the aging of the Ea was found imperative to accurately predict the heat developmentof LCC independently of the type of heat test selected for calibration. The models also predicted more severecross-over effect on the tensile than the compressive strength for low water-to-binder ratio LCC, which is relevantto decide on cracking risk mitigation measures. In general, the modelling techniques developed here evidencedgood performance for LCC and are worth of further exploration by researchers and practitioners. Their appli-cation will contribute to incentive wider use of LCC in infrastructure projects by providing more accurate pre-dictions of their cracking risk.

Construction and demolition waste (CDW) puts significant pressure on landfills and natural resources worldwide. Although partial substitutions of Portland cement (PC) with various recycled materials have been reported, a complete (100 %) replacement using recycled concrete remains problematic. In the present study, a novel binder was produced entirely from recycled concrete fines (RCF), while recycled aggregates were incorporated to replace virgin aggregates. High-energy grinding in a planetary ball mill was applied to the RCF fraction below 150 µm. Particle size reduction occurred after grinding, resulting in a decrease in d50 from 139 μm to 3.18 μm. The intensity of the X-ray diffraction (XRD) peaks corresponding to muscovite, microcline, and portlandite decreased significantly. On the other hand, quartz was only slightly affected. Activated RCF was used as a 100 % PC replacement in paste and concrete mixes. Compressive strengths of approximately 20 MPa were obtained after 28 days in laboratory tests for concrete with w/c equal to 0.6. A preliminary life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to evaluate the environmental impacts, focusing on carbon emissions and resource depletion. The LCA results suggested over 90 % reduction in CO2 emissions compared to traditional cement-based mixes. Even at the laboratory-scale milling with high energy consumption per 1 kg of RCF, the impacts correspond to 50 % of traditional concrete (TC). Benefits remain significant over short transporting distances of the processed recycled ingredients; however, resource depletion exceeds TC after about 200 kilometers, and carbon emissions go beyond TC after approximately 800 kilometers.

Mortar beams incorporating carbon nanofibers (CNFs), which were synthesized in situ on Portland cement particles, were used to produce nanomodified Portland cement sensors (SmartCem sensors). SmartCem sensors exhibited an electrical response comparable to a thermistor with a temperature coefficient of resistivity of − 0.0152/ °C. The highest temperature sensing was obtained for the SmartCem sensor, which contained ~ 0.271 wt.% of CNFs. The calculated temperature sensitivity was approximately 11.76% higher in comparison with the mortar beam containing only unmodified Portland cement. SmartCem sensors were used to monitor the cement hydration in large-scale self-compacting concrete beams. The measurements were conducted after casting for 7 days. Additionally, commercially available thermocouple and humidity sensors were used as references. The results showed that changes in electrical resistivity measured by the SmartCem sensor were well aligned with the ongoing hydration processes.

Mortar sensors were fabricated as beams incorporating different amounts of carbon nanofibers (CNFs) synthesized in-situ on cement particles. Changes in electrical resistivity were measured and compared to recorded changes in compressive stress, temperature, and humidity. Sensing mechanisms and corresponding models were developed. The findings of the study indicate that the piezoresistive effect is influenced by the critical concentration of CNFs inside the composite matrix and the tunneling effect. In addition, water absorption and desorption, as well as the amount of chemically bound water played an important role in humidity sensing. Thermal fluctuation-induced tunneling conduction was dominant for the temperature sensitivity.

This study determined how replacing sodium nitrate-based antifreeze admixture (AF) with belite-calcium sulfoaluminate (belite-CSA) cement affects the early age properties of ecological concretes based on ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS). Concrete specimens were cured at −15 °C and treated in various ways before testing, i.e., no treatment, stored at 20 °C for 12 and 24 h. Generally, the addition of belite-CSA cement shortened the setting time due to the rapid formation of ettringite. The incorporation of 25 wt% of antifreeze admixture (AF) to the OPC-GGBFS concrete cured at −15 °C partially inhibited ice formation and enabled the continuation of hydration processes. This trend was observed for all samples, independent of the applied AF after freezing curing. On the contrary, the addition of 20 wt% of CSA failed to inhibit the ice formation and increased the risk of frost damage for concretes despite the treatment after freezing. These concrete specimens had lower hydration, lower strength, and a more porous binder matrix. The microstructure of the binder matrix was significantly affected by the amount of CSA and extreme negative curing, followed by no notable recovery post-curing at room temperature. Therefore, pre-curing at room temperature for at least 6 h has the potential to avoid frost damage. Concrete containing 25 wt% AF combined with 12 h and 24 h of curing at 20 °C after removal from freezing and prior to testing could enhance the compressive strengths of all concretes. The renewed hydration was indicated as the main influencing factor.

Structural health monitoring (SHM) of road pavements is an essential task, which can help the decision-making process for timely maintenance actions. Embedded sensors are typically used to collect long-term monitoring data. However, the main drawbacks of intrusive sensors concern the risk of premature damage and the incompatibility of the sensors with the host material. Self-sensing asphalt mixtures can be used to overcome these limitations. These kinds of smart materials can autonomously monitor their strain and damage states without the need for embedded sensors. The sensing mechanism is based on the piezoresistive effect, consisting of a change in the electrical conductivity of the material when subjected to external loading. To endow the asphalt mixture with piezoresistive function, a proper amount of conductive additive should be incorporated without compromising the mechanical performance of the pavement. The present work aims to design piezoresistive asphalt mixtures for the development of SHM and traffic management systems. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) were added to the asphalt mixture with this purpose, and the piezoresistive response was tested at laboratory scale. The results show that piezoresistive asphalt mixtures have excellent self-sensing properties and can be effectively used for SHM, traffic detection and weigh-in-motion applications.

Sensing cement-based composites refer to composites that have sensing functionality that can measure several physical and chemical parameters. Sensing cement-based composites are fabricated by incorporating some functional fillers, such as conductive fibers (CFs), carbon nanofibers (CNFs), carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and graphene, into conventional concrete. The self-sensing phenomenon in a material is based on the property of an electrically conductive material to show a change in its electrical resistivity. Several factors affect the electrical resistivity of cement-based composites. These include, for example, the type of added conductive phases, their concentration, the microstructure of the surrounding binder matrix, and its composition or moisture content. Variable stress, strains, relative humidity, temperature, or crack development can all affect conductivity.

A novel material, so-called "nanomodified Portland cement," is an in situ synthesis of carbon-based materials on untreated Portland cement particles. The synthesized method is based on the application of a chemical vapor deposition process (CVD). The nanomodified Portland cement was produced and used as a conductive filler in a sensing cement-based composite to improve the dispersion issue of the carbon-based materials, which have a hydrophobic nature and the tendency to agglomerate in the cement-based composites.

The sensing capability of the nanomodified Portland cement composites was studied and compared with other conductive materials, revealing the percolation threshold and tunneling phenomena as possible explanations for the sensing mechanism with and without mechanical deformation.

The achieved results of this study suggest that nanomodified Portland cement is a promising material for use in sensing cement-based composites as it exhibits high sensitivity to compressive stress and strain, humidity, and temperature. Furthermore, it has the potential to be utilized in the development of integrated monitoring systems for concrete structures.

Self-sensing road pavements can autonomously monitor their stress/strain and damage states without the need for embedded sensors. This kind of multifunctional pavements could be used for the realisation of autonomous structural health monitoring (SHM) systems. Moreover, it would permit to collect important traffic data for traffic-monitoring analysis and the development of Vehicle to Infrastructure Communication (V2I) tools, hence contributing to the digitalisation of the transport sector. The sensing mechanism is based on the piezoresistive effect, consisting of a change in the electrical response of the road material when subjected to stress/strain or damage. This paper aims to investigate the piezoresistive behavior of conductive asphalt mixtures with electric arc furnace slag (EAFS) and graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) for self-sensing application. The results showed that asphalt mixtures with EAFS as fine aggregate and 7 wt% of GNPs exhibited excellent self-sensing properties for both traffic monitoring and SHM systems.

Commonly used humidity sensors are based on metal oxides, polymers or carbon. Their sensing accuracy often deteriorates with time, especially when exposed to higher temperatures or very high humidity. An alternative solution based on the utilization of Portland cement-based mortars containing in-situ grown carbon nanofibers (CNFs) was evaluated in this study. The relationship between the electrical resistivity, CNF content and humidity were determined. The highest sensitivity was observed for samples containing 10 wt.% of the nanomodified cement which corresponded to 0.27 wt.% of CNFs. The highest calculated sensitivity was approximately 0.01024 per 1% change in relative humidity (RH). The measured electrical resistivity is a linear function of the RH in the humidity range between 11% and 97%. The percolation threshold value was estimated to be at around 7 wt.% of the nanomodified cement, corresponding to ~0.19 wt.% of CNFs.

A nanomodified cement consisting of particles with in situ synthesized carbon nanofibers was developed to introduce a strong load-sensing capability of the hydrated binder matrix. The material was produced using chemical vapor deposition. The nanomodified cement contained 2.71 wt% of carbon nanofibers (CNFs). The electrical properties of the composite were determined. Several mortar samples were prepared by partially substituting ordinary Portland cement with 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10 wt% of the nanomodified cement. Additionally an ordinary Portland cement mortar was used as reference. The results show that the strongest piezoresistive response and therefore the best load-sensing was obtained for the mortar containing the highest amount of CNFs. This mortar contained 10 wt% of nanomodified cement. The fractional change in electrical resistivity of this mortar was 82% and this mortar had a compressive strength of 28 MPa.