Kiskamavaara is a shear zone-hosted cobaltian pyrite and chalcopyrite deposit in Northern Norrbotten, Sweden. Although previously classified as an Iron Oxide Copper-Gold (IOCG) deposit, the dominance of pyrite is atypical, suggesting either an unusual IOCG variant or a deposit type with overlapping characteristics. Understanding deposits like Kiskamavaara, for which limited documentation exists, is critical for refining genetic models and regional exploration strategies. To determine metal and fluid provenance and grain deformation characteristics in Kiskamavaara, this study combines in-situ Electron Backscatter Diffraction for deformation textures, Laser Ablation Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry for trace element geochemistry and Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry for δ34S. Results indicate early pyrite formed under variable physio-chemical conditions, producing concentrically zoned disseminated grains. A later pyrite phase, hosted in veins and breccias, exhibits crystal-plastic deformation with polygonal grains and 120° triple junctions. High Co and Ni concentrations in pyrite, with Co/Ni ratios between 10 and 1000, suggest a magmatic-hydrothermal metal source, possibly derived from nearby greenstones. Chalcopyrite is restricted to the late mineralisation stage and displays exclusively negative δ34S values, indicating precipitation from an evolved Cu-bearing hydrothermal fluid. The wide pyrite δ34S range of − 4.94‰ to + 11.16‰ implies sulfur isotope fractionation, likely driven by thermochemical sulfate reduction. Combined Se/S ratios of 3.62 × 10⁻⁶ to 5.35 × 10⁻4, δ34S and negligible Au, indicates that an oxidised, saline fluid, plausibly formed through mixing between magmatic-hydrothermal fluids and basinal brines, was reduced by thermochemical sulfate reduction, triggering pyrite precipitation and development of a moderately reduced mineral assemblage. 

The Kordkandi deposit is located 26 km northwest of Zanjan, within the Western Alborz-Azarbaijan zone and the Tarom subzone, occurring as a stratabound mineralization within Eocene andesitic basalt lava flow units (equivalent to the Karaj Formation). Copper mineralization in this deposit is primarily observed as sulfide minerals including chalcopyrite, bornite, chalcocite, and lesser pyrite and specular hematite exhibiting disseminated, vein-veinlet, and replacement textures. The volcanic rocks in this area were formed in an extensional, back-arc environment. Geochemically, the investigated samples fall within the calc-alkaline to high-potassium calc-alkaline to shoshonitic series. Based on the host rock characteristics, mineralogy, texture and structure, geometry, and alteration, this deposit shows significant similarity to Manto-type deposits in Chile. According to these lines of evidence, it can be stated that the Kordkandi copper deposit formed during burial metamorphism stages within andesitic basalt units. During this stage, with increasing burial depth, copper mineralization occurred alongside alterations such as zeolitization, chloritization, epidotization, silicification, and carbonatization. Subsequently, due to the uplift of the area and through weathering and supergene processes, secondary minerals were formed in this deposit.

کانسار مس مهدی‌آباد، در 160 کیلومتری شمال‌خاوری بیرجند، در استان خراسان جنوبی و در زون آتشفشانی ترشیری بلوک لوت واقع شده است. عمده واحدهای منطقه موردمطالعه دارای سن ائوسن و شامل گدازه‌های آندزیتی (آندزیت، تراکی آندزیت و پیروکسن آندزیت)، واحدهای آذرآواری (آگلومرا و توف) همراه با رگه‌های ژاسپر می‌باشد. بافت‌های غیرتعادلی نظیر منطقهبندی شیمیایی، بافت غربالی و حاشیههای گردشده و خلیجی در درشت‌بلورهای این سنگ‌ها مشاهده می‌شود. نتایج بررسی‌های ژئوشیمیایی نشان میدهد که این گدازهها به سری ماگمایی کالک‌آلکالن پتاسیم بالا تا متوسط تعلق دارند. غنی‌شدگی از LILE و LREE، تهی‌شدگی از HFSE و HREE در این سنگها نشان از ماگماتیسم کمان آتشفشانی حاشیه فعال قاره دارد. بر اساس نمودارهای تمایز زمین‌ساختی نیز محیط تکتونیکی گدازه‌های منطقه مهدی‌آباد با پهنه فرورانش و حاشیه فعال قاره‌ای مرتبط است که در حین صعود به سطح زمین دچار آلودگی پوسته‌ای شده است. در این محدوده ماگمایی غنی از مس حین صعود از زون فرورانش، به سطح زمین برخورد کرده است و مجموعه‌ای از سنگ‌های آتشفشانی با ترکیب حد واسط به‌صورت گدازه و آذرآواری در سطح زمین ایجاد کرده است که میزبان کانه‌زایی مس می‌باشند. کانه‌زایی مس در این منطقه به‌صورت اپی‌ژنتیک در واحدهای گدازه‌ای و آذرآواری با ترکیب آندزیتی همراه با توف و نیز در امتداد گسلهای قطع کننده سنگهای میزبان رخ داده است. بافت عمده ماده معدنی شامل رگه‌رگچهای، پرکننده فضای خالی، دانه پراکنده و جانشینی است. ماده معدنی حاوی کانی‌های اولیه کالکوسیت، بورنیت، کالکوپیریت و پیریت و کانی‌های ثانویه کوولیت، کالکوسیت ثانویه، کوپریت، مالاکیت، آزوریت، کریزوکولا، هماتیت، گوتیت و لیمونیت است. از مهم‌ترین دگرسانی‌های همراه کانهزایی می‌توان به دگرسانی کربناتی-سیلیسی، آرژیلیک، کلریتی و اکسید آهن اشاره کرد که با نزدیک شدن به بخش کانه‌دار، بر شدت کربناتی- سیلیسی شدن افزوده می‌شود.

Pericaledonian Zn-Pb vein and breccia mineralisations host the only known Ga-Ge enriched sphalerite in Sweden. This mineral system overprints Paleoproterozoic VMS and orogenic gold mineralisations. Gallium and Ge are significantly enriched in sphalerite-quartz assemblages relative to sphalerite-fluorite-calcite and other Swedish Paleoproterozoic base-metal sulfide deposits. Atom probe tomography (APT) shows that Ga and Ge are homogeneously distributed in the sphalerite lattice. No nanoparticles were detected, indicating precipitation from a Ga- and Ge-undersaturated fluid. Gallium and Ge incorporation likely occurred via coupled substitutions with Cu, Ag and Zn. These results complete a multi-scale holistic approach to mineral deposits characterisation.

Phanerozoic vein- and breccia-hosted Zn-Pb mineralisation in western Västerbotten forms a distinct mineral system which is superimposed on Palaeoproterozoic orogenic Au deposits of the Gold line and VMS deposits of the Skellefte district. Previous research on these deposits has focused on geochronological and fluid inclusion characteristics, whereas little data exist on sphalerite trace element chemistry. We present new LA-ICP-MS data from sphalerite in occurrences at Rävliden, Nyliden, Lagbäcken and Svärträsk, supplemented with SF-ICP-MS, SEM, SIMS, EPMA, SEM-CL and EBSD analyses.

Sphalerite-bearing veins crosscut all ductile fabrics and are mineralogically distinct from the VMS deposits. A polyphase is suggested by evidence for repeated events of brecciation and cementation by sphalerite, galena, calcite, zeolite, fluorite and quartz. Sphalerite displays oscillatory zoning, twinning, and evidence for recrystallisation and overgrowth. EBSD reveals subtle crystallographic misorientation and twin boundaries, which correlate spatially with preferential enrichment of Ga, Ge, Sb, and Cu along growth zoning and twinning. Presence of Ga- and Ge-rich nano inclusions are suspected and will be investigated using atom probe tomography (APT)

LA-ICP-MS contents in sphalerite reach 385 ppm Ge, 196 ppm Ga, 2700 ppm Cd, and 66.3 ppm In, and are among the highest reported in sphalerite from Sweden. In contrast, sphalerite from nearby VMS exhibit significantly lower values, which do not exceed 0.49, 53.7, 1644 and 113 ppm respectively. A systematic west-to-east zonation is observed, with higher Ge and Ga concentrations in sphalerite from western localities (e.g. Svärträsk and Lagbäcken) than eastern localities (Rävliden and Nyliden), coincident with an earlier identified T decrease from 150°C to 80°C based on available fluid inclusion data.

Stable (δ¹³C, δ¹⁸O, δ³⁴S) and Pb isotope data indicate precipitation from low-temperature, connate fluids, possibly mixed with organic-bearing fluids. Pb isotopic compositions are distinctly more radiogenic (²⁰⁷/²⁰⁴Pb ~16.2) than Skellefte VMS ores (²⁰⁷/²⁰⁴Pb ~15.1), consistent with Phanerozoic leaching of Pb from Paleoproterozoic rocks during either the opening of the Iapetus Ocean, the Timanian orogeny, or both.

The results indicate previously overlooked exploration potential for Ga-, Ge-, and In-endowed Zn mineralization. The fine-scale heterogeneity in trace element distribution in sphalerite highlights the need for high-resolution analytical workflows to inform studies assessing primary ore as well as by-product potential and tailings revalorization.

This research was carried out in the Impact Innovation programme Swedish Metals & Minerals, a joint initiative by the Swedish Energy Agency, Formas, and Vinnova, and within the ANR project Critical Metals in Orogens (ANR-23-CE01-0017). We thank as well the SFVE-A program 2024 for funding travels between France and Sweden and CAMM-CRM for additional support.

The Manica greenstones belt in western Mozambique constitutes the eastern extension of the Odzi-Mutare greenstone belt in Zimbabwe that is one of several Archean greenstone belts within the Zimbabwe Craton. These greenstones are in Mozambique constituting the Manica Group and are subdivided in two main lithostratigraphic units: The Macequece Formation and the Vengo Formation. The former is hosting the Mundonguara Cu-Au mine and is dominated by volcanic rocks, while the younger Vengo Formation is consisting of epiclastic sedimentary rocks. This paper considers the character and origin of the ultramafic, mafic, and felsic rocks within the Macequece Formation. They include peridotitic komatiite, pyroxenitic komatiite, komatiitic cumulate rocks, gabbroic dykes, rhyolitic units, and a granitic rock intruding the komatiites. Samples of these rocks have been collected from outcrops and drill cores and are investigated through petrographic studies of thin sections and whole rock geochemistry including major and trace elements to interpret the geological environment and tectonic setting.The supracrustal rocks are metamorphosed to greenschist facies and the komatiites consists of varying proportions of serpentine, talc, chlorite, and amphibole. Primary features are partly preserved, with spinifex, vesicular, and cumulate textures. The komatiites are variously affected by carbonate alteration and deformation and the rhyolitic rocks are mostly strongly silicified. The komatiites are of the Al-undepleted type, with a MgO content of 25–45 wt %, while the mafic intrusions are tholeiitic in character, varying from gabbronorite to diorite in composition. Trace element diagrams used for interpretation of tectonic setting gives ambiguous results that could be an effect of crustal contamination of the ultramafic and mafic magmas. Using diagrams less sensitive to crustal contamination suggests the mafic and ultramafic magma to have a mantle source Minor rhyolitic rocks are chemically similar to granitic rocks intruding the komatiites and might have a mainly crustal magma source. This suggested that the Manica greenstones belt formed from magmas generated by mantle plume activity in a continental rift setting and were deposited on older Archean continental crust. These rocks are tentatively correlated with the Bends or Brookland formations belonging to the 2.9–2.8 Ga Mtshingwe Group in the Belingwe greenstone belts in Zimbabwe.

The Rävliden North volcanogenic massive sulfide (VMS) deposit, in northern Sweden underwent polyphase deformation and greenschist to lower amphibolite facies metamorphism during the Svecokarelian orogeny. This caused remobilisation and recrystallisation of ore minerals, whose composition was analysed using laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) and electron probe microanalysis (EPMA). Sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and pyrrhotite chemistry mirrors zonation of undeformed VMS deposits. Chalcopyrite-rich mineralisation contains higher Cu, Co, In, and lower Mn concentrations than sphalerite-rich mineralisation. Besides galena, Ag occurs in sulfosalts, tellurides, antimonides, and amalgams, which possibly formed through exsolutions from α-galena in syn- to post-tectonic structures. LA-ICP-MS imaging shows Ag-rich minerals in early syngenetic pyrite, in contrast to syn-metamorphic pyrite, indicating remobilisation during deformation. Despite sampling effects accounted for through linear mixed effects (LME) modelling, the results indicate that syn-metamorphic recrystallisation and remobilisation did not lead to substantial compositional changes in ore minerals. Instead, these processes partitioned Ga between sphalerite and chalcopyrite and enriched Ag, Cd, and Sb in minerals associated with younger parageneses. Zeolite-bearing veins in the hanging wall host sphalerite with the highest Ga, Ge, Cu, and Sb contents and galena with the lowest Bi, Te, and Tl contents. An origin potentially linked to far-field effects of the opening of the Iapetus Ocean or waning Timanian orogeny is discussed based on similarities to other vein- and breccia-hosted Zn Pb deposits in Northern Sweden. This study provides the first multiple-mineral in-situ trace element dataset for a VMS deposit in the Skellefte district, enhances understanding of element redistribution during metamorphism, and identifies remobilised elements potentially vectoring mineralisation at depth. Moreover, this study enables tracing of penalty and by-product elements in downstream beneficiation processes.

The Tangal-e-Sefid Fe–Cu mineralization forms syngenetic stratiform deposit in the Late Neoproterozoic volcano sedimentary sequence from the Central Iran. Early Cambrian metamorphic rocks are associated ore-bearing geologic units. The mineralization includes early oxide phase as a magnetite-rich bodies that are overprinted by a pyrite-chalcopyrite-rich sulfide phase. The most current alteration zone includes propylitic-carbonate, chlorite, sericite and silicic with a well-developed distribution of chloritization, especially in the layered part. Magnetite, pyrite and chalcopyrite comprise the primary main mineral assemblage, which is accompanied by malachite, covellite, hematite and goethite as the secondary minerals associated with epidote, chlorite, quartz and calcite minerals. Magnetite chemistry reveals the hydrothermal evolution of mineralization, and all the examined magnetite fall within fields of magnetite from VMS deposits. Fluid inclusion analysis of quartz and calcite coexisting with magnetite represent homogenization temperature range of 198 °C and 357 °C with a cooling trend from the massive toward the layered parts. The measured fluid salinity identifies two distinct medium-salinity fluids with mean values corresponding to 15 and 22 wt% NaCl. There is no significant difference in terms of temperature and salinity measured in calcite and quartz minerals. However, the average measured temperature values of fluids trapped in calcite (189–336 °C) are slightly lower than quartz (227–357 °C). Since the ore deposit distribution is spatially associated with actinolite schist, thermometric data of actinolite show temperature fluctuations of 310–315 °C and mineral formation pressures of 2.5–3 Kbar, which are correlated with the low-grade metamorphism.

Primary hydrothermal fluids derived from submarine magmatism in an extensional system of seafloor were enriched in Fe and Cu (± Zn and possibly Pb) and it is the responsible for the first stage of magnetite formation and following the overprinting pyrite and chalcopyrite mineralization. The ore deposit geometries associated with magnetite mineralization and sulfide replacement styles; reveals that in the second stage of mineralization, hydrothermal fluid is mixed with oceanic water and eventually metal sulfides are deposited. The mineralizaton zone associated with the volcano-sedimentary sequence is affected by low-grade regional metamorphism related to Pan-African orogeny and represent the green schist territory as the VMS deposits related to Archean.

The metamorphosed, stratiform, c. 1.9 Ga Zinkgruvan Zn-Pb-Ag deposit is one of Europe’s largest producers of Zn. Since 2010, disseminated Cu mineralization is also mined from dolomite marble in a hydrothermal vent-proximal position in the stratigraphic footwall. Local enrichments of Co and REE exist in the vent-proximal mineralization types, albeit their distribution is poorly known. This contribution provides new data on the distribution of Co and REE within the Zinkgruvan deposit.

LA-ICP-MS analysis suggest that lattice-bound cobalt in sphalerite range between 44 ppm and 1372 ppm, with the lowest and highest values occurring in distal and proximal mineralization, respectively. Proximal Co-rich sphalerite is always Fe-rich. Lattice-bound Co also occur in pyrrhotite; ranging from 52 ppm in distal ore to 1608 ppm in proximal ore. There is a concurrent increase in lattice-bound Ni from 3 ppm to 529 ppm. In proximal ore, Co is also hosted by cobalt minerals such as costibite (27.37 wt.% Co), safflorite (16.21 wt.% Co), nickeline (7.54 wt.% Co), cobaltite (32.74 wt.% Co) and cobaltpentlandite (25.49 wt.% Co). Automated quantitative mineralogy suggest that these minerals are highly subordinate to sphalerite (<70.11%) and pyrrhotite (<14.69%), amounting to <2.88% cobalt minerals with safflorite being most common (up to 2.67%). Cobalt deportment calculations suggest that the proportion of whole-rock Co that is lattice-bound to sphalerite and pyrrhotite ranges from 7.80% to 100%, with sphalerite being the main host. Whole-rock As and Ni contents pose a strong control on whether Co occurs lattice-bound or as Co minerals.

LA-ICP-MS analysis show that accessory apatite in proximal, marble-hosted Cu mineralization carries a few thousand ppm ∑REE, but locally up to c. 1.6 wt.% ∑REE. The apatite can be subdivided into two types. Type 1 apatite is characterized by dumbbell-shaped chondrite-normalized REE profiles with relative enrichment of in particular Sm-Tb, depletion of Yb-Lu relative to La-Pr, local positive Gd anomalies, and weak positive to negative Eu anomalies. Type 2 apatite is characterized by flat to negatively sloping REE profiles from La to Gd and relative HREE depletion. Additional REE is hosted by monazite. Type 1 apatite was only found as a gangue to Cu mineralization. The Type 1 apatite REE signature is characteristic of hydrothermal apatite, and a direct genetic association with vent-proximal Cu mineralization can be inferred.

Comparison with published REE contents in apatite suggest that vent-proximal Zinkgruvan apatite is locally as REE-rich as apatite from Kiruna-type apatite iron oxide deposits, and more REE-rich than apatite in other metamorphosed sediment-hosted sulphide deposits in the world, such as the Gamsberg deposit (RSA).

The Narm deposit is located in the Kuh-e-Sarhangi district which is a main part of the most significant Iranian iron mineralization belt, the Kashmar-Kerman Tectonic Zone (KKTZ) in Central Iran. The Narm deposit comprises an estimated total of ∼ 135000 tons of iron ore with an average grade of ∼ 55% Fe and is hosted in Early Cambrian volcano sedimentary rocks of the Rizu formation. Ore occurrences in this deposit consist of lens-shaped magnetite ore bodies, magnetite-apatite-actinolite veins and locally rare brecciated dolomite with magnetite clasts. Magnetite, pyrite, chalcopyrite and specularite associated with apatite, actinolite, biotite and carbonate minerals form the primary main mineral assemblage which is accompanied by hematite and goethite as the secondary minerals. Magnetite as the most current mineral of Narm deposit reveal the magmatic to hydrothermal evolution of mineralization. Magmatic magnetite minerals (Mag I) are dark-gray inclusion-rich magnetite spatially correlated with high temperature Ca-Fe alteration. The brighter inclusion-free hydrothermal magnetite groups (Mag II and Mag III) form during the temperature decreasing of the mineralizing fluid. According to the magnetite chemistry examination, most magnetite fall into the field for magnetite from iron-oxide apatite (IOA) deposits. Apatite minerals with F/Cl >2, belong geochemically to the fluorapatite type. In addition to the primary dolomite, there are some hydrothermal Fe-rich dolomites and Mn bearing ones, indicating the hydrothermal fluid playing the important role for Fe-rich mineralization. In respect to fluid evolution, fluid inclusion analysis of calcite and apatite minerals form the magnetite paragenesis assemblage represent homogenization temperature range for fluid between 325-557℃. The salinity of fluid varied from 7.7 to 11.6 wt % NaCl equivalent and a cooling trend with the dominant chlorine complex as an agent for deposition of the Fe-rich ores. The geochemical characteristics of the δ¹⁸O_fluid values of magnetite (from +6.1 to +10.4‰) and δ¹⁸O_fluid values of actinolite (from +7.7 to +12.5‰) represent the magmatic-hydrothermal (δ¹⁸O_fluid > + 0.9 ‰) formation process. The iron rich Al-clinochlore composition from the alteration zone indicates a temperature range between 250 and 330℃ which points to a temperature reduction of hydrothermal fluids in this mineralizing zone. The integrated geochemical data from this investigation, including mineral chemistry, microthermometry of fluid inclusions and oxygen isotope data all reveal a magmatic-hydrothermal genesis for this deposit.

Geodynamically, the Kashmar-Kerman Tectonic Zone (KKTZ) is one of the most perplexing tectonomagmatic belts of the Central Iran Microcontinent (CIM), comprising two important districts, Bafq and Kuh-e-Sarhangi. The Late Neoproterozoic-Early Cambrian granitoids, metamorphic rocks, and mildly metamorphosed volcansedimentary sequences are the oldest geologic outcrops in the Narm area, which is located in the western part of Kuh-e-Sarhangi. Alkaline gabbro-diorites with relatively high contents of K2O (1.99–3.03 wt%) and Na2O (2.7–5.99 wt%) are among the youngest intrusive rocks in the area, representing a within-plate provenience. These rocks were emplaced into Paleozoic sedimentary units as mafic-intermediate stocks, sills and dykes. Geochemically, these rocks could have resulted directly from partial melting (e.g., FeOT/MgO>1, Nb/La>0.5) with no considerable indication of assimilation with crustal materials (e.g., Ti/Zr > 30, Ti/Y > 200). Assimilation and fractional crystallization cannot account for magma evolution of gabbro-diorite rocks in the Narm area, using rare earth element ratios and geochemical models. There are also some geochemical signatures of an asthenospheric origin for the Narm gabbro-diorite rocks, such as the low ratios of La/Nb (1.5) and La/Ta (22). U–Pb zircon ages show that the Narm gabbro-diorites formed during two major episodes of magmatism in Central Iran: 40.3 ± 0.1 Ma in the Late Eocene (Bartonian) for gabbroic units and 8.04 ± 0.05 and 7.86 ± 0.05 in the late Miocene (Tartonian) for diorite stocks and diorite sills, respectively. Despite a time difference of more than thirty million years, geochemical similarities between the Eocene gabbro rocks and the Miocene diorite from the Narm area are striking. It is proposed that the best scenarios for the west of Kuh-e-Sarhangi mafic-intermediate magmatic pulses along with the deep faults of the Central Iran, are an Eocene magmatic flare up and a Miocene asthenosphere upwelling. Temporally and spatially, these rocks are comparable to the Cenozoic alkaline intrusive rocks of the Bafq region.