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Non-destructive measurement of near-surface cracks in railheads: with focus on ultrasonic inspections
Luleå University of Technology, Department of Civil, Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering, Operation, Maintenance and Acoustics.ORCID iD: 0000-0003-1622-5151
2021 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Near-surface cracks in railhead that caused by rolling contact fatigue (RCF) is one of a kind rail defects that degrade rail track quality. Dependent on the trail load, the cracks can reach to severe level quickly. From many studies, the crack growth can be summarized as follows: At the first phase, the crack is initiated at the rail surface due to shear stresses created by the interaction between wheel and rail. The crack then propagates at about 30⁰ angle underneath. After a certain period of transition, the cracks starts propagating horizontally, vertically, or branching. If they propagates horizontally, the cracks potentially cause rail spalling. If they propagates vertically, then the cracks become more severe and dangerous.

To overcome such defects, the infrastructure manager remove the top of railhead by performing rail grinding periodically. Prior the grinding, rail tracks need to be inspected to figure out how deep the cracks are by performing non-destructive testing (NDT). Eddy current testing (ECT) is one of the common method to estimate rail surface crack depths. Most of the practices in the industry, ECT estimates only the crack depth, without analyzing any other crack parameters, such as crack angle propagation, crack length, crack area, crack branches, etc. It also has no ability to identify multi-leveled cracks, sub surface cracks, dense cracks etc. Since depth is the only crack parameter that can be provided from ECT, the inspector have no knowledge about how severe the surface crack is. Whereas, information of crack phase, that is known from the crack profile (crack angle, crack depth and crack length) is beneficial to determine whether the crack is in initial or severe level. It also helps to decide the right time for grinding and avoid severe cracks remain long in the rails.

Motivated by the benefit of knowing crack parameters, in this study, phased array ultrasonic transducer (PAUT) was used to inspect rail surface cracks. Generally, ultrasonic testing is used to inspect defect of rails at the far-field of the surface, such as at the body or bottom of the rails. Ultrasonic testing is not used to inspect near-surface cracks since the existence of dead zone at the few mm front of the transducer that is caused by piezoelectric crystal ringing inside the transducer. In this study, by utilizing wedge, phased array technique, and setting the optimum gain at the calibration process could decrease the existence of the dead zone. Thus the surface cracks can be observed clearly from the breaking surface to the deepest tip. At the measurement result, crack profile (propagation angle, depth and length), crack branches and multi-level cracks could be observed well. 

To verify the measurement result, the inspected railheads were sliced into pieces with uniform 0.65-mm thickness. From these pieces, 3D cracks networks were reconstructed. Complete information of crack profiles (angle, depth and length) of all cracks under the inspected surfaces were collected and well presented. From the reconstructed crack images, crack tips, multi-level cracks, and crack branches can be seen. These confirms that the measurement results could be used to observe crack profile well. For a brief description about the results, 3.5 mm crack tip depth and 6 mm crack length were estimated well with 8% and 4% error, respectively. Although the measurement system still have lack of detection for crack path that oriented sharply from the horizontal line parallel to the surface, since the ultrasonic waves could not be reflected back by these paths.

At the end of this study, assessment about the potential of measurement speed of the used system when be applied to the rail field inspection was presented. The study is based on the state of the art available at this topic. The discussion is provided in order to motivate the application of the system to be chosen by the rail inspector to use it for the real rail field inspection. 

Abstract [sv]

Sprickor nära ytor i rälhuvuden som orsakas av rullande kontaktutmattning (RCF) är en vanlig typ av järnvägsfel som försämrar spårkvaliteten. Beroende på spårbelastningen kan sprickorna snabbt nå en oacceptabel nivå. Tidigare forskning visar att spricktillväxten kan sammanfattas enligt följande: I den första fasen initieras sprickorna vid på rälytorna genom de skjuvspänningar som skapas av växelverkan mellan hjul och räl. Sprickan sprider sig sedan i ungefär 30⁰ vinkel under ytan. Efter en viss övergångsperiod börjar sprickorna föröka sig horisontellt, vertikalt eller förgrena sig. Om de sprider sig horisontellt kan sprickorna orsaka flisning. Om de sprider sig vertikalt blir sprickorna allvarligare och farligare.

För att komma till rätta med sådana fel tar infrastrukturförvaltaren bort delar av toppen av rälshuvudet genom att utföra järnvägsslipning med jämna mellanrum. Före slipningen måste järnvägsspåren inspekteras för att ta reda på hur djupa sprickorna är genom att utföra oförstörande provning (NDT). Virvelströmsmätning (ECT) är en av de vanliga metoderna för att uppskatta sprickdjup på järnvägsspår. De flesta metoder inom branschen, inklusive ECT, ger endast en grov uppskattning av sprickdjupet utan att analysera några andra sprickparametrar, såsom sprickvinkelutbredning, spricklängd, sprickområde, sprickgrenar etc. De har inte heller någon förmåga att identifiera sprickor som ligger i flera nivåer, ytnära sprickor, täta sprickor etc. Eftersom djupet är den enda sprickparametern som kan tillhandahållas från ECT, har inspektören ingen kunskap om hur allvarliga ytsprickorna är, medan information om sprickfasen, som är känd från sprickprofilen (sprickvinkel, sprickdjup och spricklängd), är fördelaktig för att bestämma om sprickorna är i initial eller allvarlig nivå. Denna information är viktig för att bestämma rätt tid för slipning och därmed undvika att allvarliga sprickor blir kvar i rälen, som annars skulle kunna äventyra säkerheten.

Motiverad av fördelen med att känna till dessa sprickparametrar, användes i denna studie fasvis array-ultraljudsgivare (PAUT) för att inspektera spårytor. Generellt används ultraljudstester för att inspektera skador på räl långt ner under rälytan, såsom vid skenans liv eller botten. Ultraljudstestning används inte för att inspektera sprickor nära ytan eftersom det finns en död zon vid några mm på framsidan av givaren som orsakas av piezoelektrisk kristallringning inuti givaren. I denna studie, genom att använda kil, Phased Array teknik, och ställa in optimal förstärkning vid kalibreringsprocessen förekomsten av den döda zonen kunnat minskas. Således kan då ytsprickorna observeras tydligt från rälytan till den sprickspetsarna.  Mätresultaten har visat att sprickprofilen (utbredningsvinkel, djup och längd), sprickgrenar och sprickor på flera nivåer kan observeras med förhållandevis god noggrannhet.

För att verifiera mätresultatet skars de inspekterade rälhuvudena upp i tunna skivor med 0,65 mm tjocklek. Från dessa skivor rekonstruerades 3D-nätverk av sprickorna. Fullständig information om sprickprofiler (vinkel, djup och längd) för alla sprickor under de inspekterade ytorna samlades därmed in och uppmättes med god noggrannhet. Från de rekonstruerade sprickbilderna kan sprickspetsar, flernivåsprickor och sprickgrenar ses. Jämförelser med dessa verkliga data bekräftar att mätresultaten från de utvecklade mätprinciperna kan användas för att observera sprickprofilen väl. För en kort beskrivning av resultaten uppmättes 3,5 mm sprickdjup 6 mm spricklängd med 8 % respektive 4 % mätnoggrannhet. Dock saknar de utvecklade mätprinciperna fortfarande detekteringsförmåga för sprickor som orienterar sig kraftigt från den horisontella linjen parallellt med ytan, eftersom ultraljudsvågorna inte kunde reflekteras tillbaka.

I slutet av denna studie presenteras en bedömning av möjligheten att genomföra mätningar vid hög tåghastighet för de utvecklade mätprinciperna om de i framtiden utvecklas så att de kan appliceras på mättåg.  Bedömningen tillhandahålls för att motivera tillämpningen av forskningsresultaten vid utveckling av ett system som kan monteras på mättåg för kontinuerlig mätning på verkliga spår. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Luleå: Luleå University of Technology, 2021. , p. 133
Series
Doctoral thesis / Luleå University of Technology, ISSN 1402-1544
Keywords [en]
rail inspection, phased array, ultrasonic testing, eddy current testing, surface cracks, non-destructive testing, NDT, railway, condition monitoring
National Category
Infrastructure Engineering
Research subject
Operation and Maintenance Engineering
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-87187ISBN: 978-91-7790-926-2 (print)ISBN: 978-91-7790-927-9 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:ltu-87187DiVA, id: diva2:1596471
Public defence
2021-11-17, A117, Luleå, 10:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2021-09-24 Created: 2021-09-22 Last updated: 2025-10-21Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Non-destructive measurement of artificial near-surface cracks for railhead inspection
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Non-destructive measurement of artificial near-surface cracks for railhead inspection
2019 (English)In: Insight: Non-Destructive Testing & Condition Monitoring, ISSN 1354-2575, E-ISSN 1754-4904, Vol. 61, no 7, p. 373-379Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

This paper delivers a study involving the inspection of artificial surface cracks with depths ranging from 0.25-2.5 mm from the surface and with a crack angle of 30°, which is a typical angle for surface cracks in railheads. The inspections were conducted using three different techniques: phased array ultrasonics, single-element ultrasonics and alternating current potential drop (ACPD). For the ultrasonic techniques, the study focused on employing either longitudinal or shear wave signals. In the railway industry, shallow surface cracks in railheads are caused by rolling contact fatigue (RCF). In this study, artificial defects were made, allowing the authors to explore the extent to which the ultrasonic measurement techniques can detect such defects. The negative effect of a dead zone near to the surface in the ultrasonic tests was reduced by using a wedge attachment. A discussion on the extent to which the techniques can be used in field tests was also provided. The most important result is that shallow cracks ranging from 0.25-2.5 mm were successfully characterised with acceptable accuracy. The 2.5 mm-deep crack can be measured with an accuracy of 0.8% using a 20 MHz single-element probe and with an accuracy of 3.5% using a 5 MHz phased array (64 elements, 0.6 mm pitch). The characterisations were performed using a filtering method that was developed in this study.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
UK: The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing, 2019
Keywords
near-surface cracks, artificial defect, rail, railhead, nondestructive testing, ultrasonic, phased array
National Category
Other Civil Engineering
Research subject
Operation and Maintenance Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-75528 (URN)10.1784/insi.2019.61.7.373 (DOI)000474598900005 ()2-s2.0-85069039233 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Luleå Railway Research Centre (JVTC), 1675605
Note

Validerad;2019;Nivå 2;2019-08-16 (johcin)

Available from: 2019-08-15 Created: 2019-08-15 Last updated: 2025-10-22Bibliographically approved
2. Phased array ultrasonic inspection of near-surface cracks in a railhead and its verification with rail slicing
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Phased array ultrasonic inspection of near-surface cracks in a railhead and its verification with rail slicing
2020 (English)In: Insight: Non-Destructive Testing & Condition Monitoring, ISSN 1354-2575, E-ISSN 1754-4904, Vol. 62, no 7, p. 387-395Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

In this study, near-surface cracks in a railhead are inspected thoroughly using phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT). This research finds an alternative technique to inspect for near-surface cracks because the conventional non-destructive testing method for rail inspection lacks the capacity to inspect the near-surface crack profile. This study shows that PAUT can determine not only the crack depth but also the near-surface crack profile, so that the inspector can estimate the stage of crack growth and how the crack propagates. This information is valuable to the rail maintainer as one of the considerations for deciding the thickness of metal to remove when grinding the rail. In this study, after the measurement, the inspected region of the cracked railhead is sliced into thin pieces so that crack network information can be extracted. A 3D image reconstruction of the surface cracks based on the crack marks from all of the sliced rail pieces is performed. This image is then used as a reference to confirm the PAUT results. The results show that PAUT can clearly deliver crack profile estimation and provide an accurate estimation of a 3.51 mm crack-tip depth with an absolute error range of 8%-18%. The results also suggest that PAUT is a potential method for installation in a measurement train for near-surface crack inspection.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
United Kingdom: The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing, 2020
Keywords
3D CRACK IMAGE, CRACK MEASUREMENT, NEAR-SURFACE CRACK, PHASED ARRAY, RAIL SLICING, RAILHEAD, RAILWAY, ULTRASONIC
National Category
Other Civil Engineering
Research subject
Operation and Maintenance Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-80308 (URN)10.1784/insi.2020.62.7.387 (DOI)000546140500003 ()2-s2.0-85090427026 (Scopus ID)
Note

Validerad;2020;Nivå 2;2020-08-18 (alebob)

Available from: 2020-08-05 Created: 2020-08-05 Last updated: 2025-10-22Bibliographically approved
3. Limitations of eddy current inspection for the characterization of near-surface cracks in railheads
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Limitations of eddy current inspection for the characterization of near-surface cracks in railheads
2022 (English)In: Proceedings of the Institution of mechanical engineers. Part F, journal of rail and rapid transit, ISSN 0954-4097, E-ISSN 2041-3017, Vol. 236, no 5, p. 532-544Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Eddy current (EC) testing is the most commonly used method to inspect near-surface cracks in railheads. Monitoring surface defects periodically is important to assess the track quality for serving daily operations. Nevertheless, despite being used in many countries, this method has limitations when characterizing cracks under the rail surface. Theoretically, EC testing is unreliable for the inspection of many cracks situated too close to each other in a concentrated location. This study has aimed to prove these limitations. EC signals from inspected cracks were compared with real crack profile parameters, i.e. depth and area, which were delivered by slicing the inspected cracked spots into 0.65 mm-thick pieces. The results show that the EC signal responses to the parameters of area and depth may lead to misleading measurements of the near-surface crack depth in the railhead. For instance, a shallower crack with a larger area can generate a higher EC signal response than a deeper crack with a smaller area. Another important conclusion is that the EC testing in this experiment could not be used to measure densely located cracks, which are those near-surface cracks which are typically found in a rail track. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sage Publications, 2022
Keywords
3D crack image, Eddy current, near-surface cracks, rail slicing, railhead
National Category
Other Civil Engineering Other Materials Engineering
Research subject
Operation and Maintenance Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-86470 (URN)10.1177/09544097211029534 (DOI)000677042400001 ()2-s2.0-85109155128 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Luleå Railway Research Centre (JVTC)
Note

Validerad;2022;Nivå 2;2022-05-30 (sofila);

Ytterligare forskningsfinansiär: European Shift2Rail

Available from: 2021-07-27 Created: 2021-07-27 Last updated: 2025-10-21Bibliographically approved
4. Ultrasonic phased array measurement of near-surface cracks in the railhead.
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Ultrasonic phased array measurement of near-surface cracks in the railhead.
2019 (English)In: World Congress on Railway Research (WCRR) 2019, Tokyo, Japan, Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI, Japan) , 2019, article id PB027753Conference paper, Published paper (Refereed)
Abstract [en]

Ultrasonic measurement is one of the non-destructive techniques used to inspect defects in the rail body. Ultrasonic measurement is known inappropriate to inspect near-surface defects because of a challenge, called dead-zone. It is signal noise or ringing phenomenon located at near-field in front of the transducer when measuring a material. Due to this, there is difficulty in analysing any measurement signal at this zone, including signals from near-surface defects. In this study, the dead zone was eliminated by attaching wedge to shift the location of noise signals relative to the near-surface defect locations. First, a known-depth defect was measured by using phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) to calibrate the ultrasonic equipment and found the best signal gain to eliminate diffuse scattering from defects. Second, a cracked spot on railhead was inspected at the right and left direction of the spot. After the measurement, the inspected spot was sliced into 0.65 mm-thick pieces. From those pieces, the actual crack depth could be observed directly. Based on those sliced pieces, the ultrasonic measurement results were verified. From this study, PAUT delivered accurate measurement result of 3.51-mm crack tip depth with an absolute error of 0.8% - 18%. This accurate result indicates that PAUT can be an alternative to inspect the near-surface crack in railhead. 

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI, Japan), 2019
Keywords
phased array ultrasonic testing, near-surface crack, eddy current testing, crack measurement
National Category
Reliability and Maintenance
Research subject
Operation and Maintenance Engineering
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-83624 (URN)
Conference
12th World Congress on Railway Research (WCRR 2019), Tokyo, Japan, October 28 - November 1, 2019
Available from: 2021-04-13 Created: 2021-04-13 Last updated: 2025-10-21Bibliographically approved

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