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Mastering Skills in an Unpredictable World: Simulator Training for Train Drivers
Luleå University of Technology, Department of Social Sciences, Technology and Arts, Humans and Technology. Statens väg- och transportforskningsinstitut, Linköping, Sweden.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-9536-8358
2024 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Train drivers play a crucial role in the railway system, with their performance significantly impacting accident rates and punctuality. This is particularly true during abnormal situations, such as signal failures or the presence of people on or near the tracks. In these circumstances, good driver performance enhances overall railway performance, leading to better punctuality, fewer accidents, and a reduction in collisions between trains and other vehicles, animals, or people.

One of the most critical skills for a train driver to minimize errors is situational awareness, a person’s ability to comprehend what is happening in a given situation, which is essential for responding effectively (Endsley, 1995). This skill becomes especially important in abnormal situations. A situationally unaware driver results from either a lack of expertise or failure of expertise. Lack of expertise means that the driver does not possess the necessary knowledge to build an accurate situational model, increasing the risk of misinterpreting a situation. Naturally, novice drivers, lacking experience in many situations, are more prone to making mistakes due to this knowledge gap.

Basic train driver education in Sweden includes around 20 weeks of on-the-job training. However, it is debatable whether this provides enough exposure to various situations for drivers to gain adequate experience. In response to this criticism, a low-fidelity train driving simulator has been introduced in the last decade to complement traditional training. This thesis explores how the simulator can enhance the internship experience and help produce more well-prepared train drivers.

Still, even experienced drivers can misinterpret situations (failures of expertise), often due to distractions from multiple information sources, which may direct their attention away from critical elements. A train driver must process information from outside the train (e.g., signals, marker boards, and other objects) and from within the cab to build an accurate situational model. Modern train cabins feature at least three screens, providing vital information about the train’s condition, energy-efficient driving, and, most importantly, automatic train protection (ATP) systems, which display details like, speed limits and signal status. This complexity increases when drivers simultaneously gather and process information from outside and inside the cab. Consequently, this thesis also examines how in-cab information systems influence driver attention and the possibility of developing accurate situational awareness.

The thesis is composed of four papers. Paper 1 used web-based questionnaires to assess how frequently 43 specific situations arise and are practiced during internships. Paper 2 involved a simulator experiment, investigating how simulator training impacts driver performance in a simulated test. Paper 3 examined the relationship between actual driver performance, based on supervisor evaluations over 11 weeks of internship, and performance during a 45-minute simulator test, measured by counting driving errors. Finally, Paper 4 explored how in-cab information systems affect driver attention, utilizing eye-tracking data from a simulator experiment.

The findings reveal that, apart from various shunting scenarios, trainee drivers must be exposed to more practice in abnormal situations. Furthermore, the study shows significant variability in trainees’ experiences, posing a challenge for educators. Paper 2 demonstrates the effectiveness of simulator training, primarily due to its ability to offer repeated practice. The ecological validity of the simulator is supported by a medium-strong correlation between internship performance and simulator test performance, as discussed in Paper 3. Paper 4 highlights that the most critical in-cab information system, the ATP, can divert attention away from external cues, particularly during speed reductions. Additionally, the new European ATP system, known as the European traffic management system (ERTMS), demands more driver focus compared to Sweden’s automatic train control (ATC) system.

Based on these findings, simulator training should be extensively used to provide trainee drivers with practical experience in handling abnormal situations, which real-world conditions may not offer frequently enough. To optimize this training, a simulator test should first be administered to identify which scenarios an individual driver lacks experience in and needs to practice more. Furthermore, visual behaviour training should aim to enhance drivers’ external focus, particularly in areas where people are likely to be present, such as level crossings and stations. This would improve their chance to react in time to prevent potential collisions. In conclusion, to minimize the risk of errors stemming from a misinterpretation of situations (situational unawareness), simulator training should concentrate on providing sufficient experience in abnormal conditions alongside focused visual behaviour training.

Abstract [sv]

Lokförare är en central del av järnvägssystemet, och deras prestationer påverkar både olycksstatistik och tågens punktlighet. Förarens insats är särskilt avgörande i avvikande situationer, som vid signalfel eller när människor befinner sig på eller nära spåret. I sådana situationer bidrar en bra prestation till bättre järnvägsprestanda, vilket innebär högre punktlighet, färre olyckor och färre kollisioner mellan tåg och andra fordon, djur eller människor.

En avgörande färdighet för lokförare för att minska risken för misstag är situationsmedvetenhet, vilket definieras som en persons förståelse för vad som sker i en given situation. Denna medvetenhet är avgörande för att kunna agera rätt (Endsley, 1995), och är särskilt viktig i avvikande situationer. En bristande situationsmedvetenhet kan bero på antingen bristande kompetens eller ett misslyckande att använda befintlig kompetens. Bristande kompetens innebär att föraren saknar tillräcklig kunskap för att göra en korrekt bedömning av situationen, vilket ökar risken för missförstånd. Noviser, som naturligt saknar erfarenhet av många situationer, riskerar därför att göra misstag på grund av denna brist. Eftersom grundutbildningen för lokförare i Sverige omfattar cirka 20 veckors praktik under produktion är det tveksamt om denna praktik ger tillräckligt många tillfällen att öva på olika situationer och därmed erhålla nödvändig erfarenhet. Under det senaste decenniet har dock en lokförarsimulator introducerats i utbildningen, och denna avhandling undersöker hur simulatorn kan komplettera praktiken.

Även erfarna förare kan dock missbedöma en situation (misslyckande användning av befintlig kompetens), vilket ofta beror på distraktioner från en eller flera informationskällor. För att kunna göra en korrekt situationsbedömning måste en lokförare inhämta och bearbeta information både från omgivningen (exempelvis signaler, skyltar eller andra objekt) och inifrån hytten genom flera informationskällor. I moderna tåghytter får föraren information från minst tre skärmar som visar bland annat tågets status, energieffektiv körning och, viktigast av allt, ett tågskyddssystem som ger information om exempelvis hastighetsbegränsningar och signalers status. Informationsinhämtningen och bearbetningen kan därför vara komplex, särskilt när information måste samlas in från flera källor samtidigt. Den här avhandlingen undersöker därför också hur invändiga informationssystem påverkar lokförarens uppmärksamhet och därmed möjligheten att bygga en korrekt situationsmodell (att vara situationsmedveten).

Avhandlingen består av fyra artiklar. Artikel 1 använde webbaserade enkäter för att undersöka hur ofta 43 olika situationer förväntas inträffa och därmed tränas under praktiken. Artikel 2 inkluderade ett simulatorexperiment som undersökte effekten av simulatorträning på lokförares prestation i ett simulatortest. Artikel 3 syftade till att studera sambandet mellan lokförares prestation under verklig tågkörning, mätt genom handledarbetyg från elva veckors praktik, och prestation i ett 45-minuters simulatortest, där antalet förarfel mättes. Artikel 4 undersökte hur informationssystem i hytten påverkar lokförares uppmärksamhet, baserat på ögonrörelsedata från ett simulatorexperiment.

Resultaten från Artikel 1 visar att, med undantag för olika former av växling, kan man inte förvänta sig att blivande lokförare har fått tillräcklig övning i avvikande situationer. Studien visar också att elevernas erfarenheter varierar avsevärt, vilket utgör en utmaning för utbildarna. Artikel 2 visar att simulatorträning är effektiv, främst tack vare möjligheten till upprepad övning. Ekologisk validitet demonstrerades genom en medelstark korrelation mellan prestation i verkligheten och i simulatortestet enligt Artikel 3. Artikel 4 visar att tågskyddssystemet i hytten påverkar förarens uppmärksamhet på omgivningen negativt, särskilt vid pågående hastighetsnedsättningar, och att det nya europeiska systemet European traffic management system (ERTMS) kräver mer uppmärksamhet från föraren än det svenska systemet automatic train control (ATC).

Baserat på dessa resultat bör simulatorträning användas för att ge lokförarelever praktisk erfarenhet av de flesta avvikande situationer, eftersom verkligheten sällan erbjuder tillräckliga träningsmöjligheter. För att träningen ska vara så effektiv som möjligt bör den föregås av ett simulatortest som identifierar vilka situationer varje elev behöver mer träning i. Visuell beteendeträning bör särskilt fokusera på att förbättra förarnas uppmärksamhet på omgivningen, särskilt vid platser där människor ofta befinner sig (till exempel plankorsningar och stationer), för att öka möjligheten att agera i tid och undvika potentiella kollisioner. För att minska risken för att en förare begår misstag på grund av bristande förståelse av situationen (situationsomedvetenhet) bör simulatorträning därför fokusera på att ge eleven tillräcklig erfarenhet av avvikande situationer samt träning i visuellt beteende.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Luleå: Luleå University of Technology, 2024. , p. 250
Series
Doctoral thesis / Luleå University of Technology 1 jan 1997 → …, ISSN 1402-1544
National Category
Applied Psychology
Research subject
Human Work Sciences
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-110142ISBN: 978-91-8048-646-0 (print)ISBN: 978-91-8048-647-7 (print)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:ltu-110142DiVA, id: diva2:1901495
Public defence
2024-11-15, A109, Luleå University of Technology, Luleå, 12:48 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2024-09-30 Created: 2024-09-27 Last updated: 2024-09-30Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Visual behaviour of train drivers: a comparative analysis of ETCS and a lineside signalling system
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Visual behaviour of train drivers: a comparative analysis of ETCS and a lineside signalling system
Show others...
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other (popular science, discussion, etc.))
National Category
Applied Psychology Vehicle Engineering
Research subject
Human Work Sciences
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-110156 (URN)
Available from: 2024-09-30 Created: 2024-09-30 Last updated: 2024-09-30
2. The practical part of train driver education: experience, expectations, and possibilities
Open this publication in new window or tab >>The practical part of train driver education: experience, expectations, and possibilities
2021 (English)In: European Transport Research Review, ISSN 1867-0717, E-ISSN 1866-8887, Vol. 13, article id 52Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

ObjectivesThe internship period of the Swedish train driver education was examined in terms of which types of situations can be sufficiently encountered in order to develop expertise to handle them safely and efficiently, and to quantify and specify the gap in expertise between expert and novice drivers in terms of risk of error and time efficiency. Focus was on special cases (i.e., situations that occur rarely but may cause severe accidents if not handled correctly and efficiently).

MethodologyData on which situations and special cases a driver's student can be expected to experience during the internship period were collected via a web-based questionnaire. Also, ratings of expectations on novice and expert drivers were obtained from train driver educators, employers, and instructors with the purpose of comparing the expectations with the novices practical experience.

Results and conclusionsThe main results suggest that many special cases are generally insufficiently practiced during the internship and therefore should be practiced in simulators; that both experienced and novice drivers prioritize safety over efficiency; and that expectations on novice drivers are realistic considering their limited professional expertise.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Springer Nature, 2021
Keywords
Train driver, Expertise, Train simulation, Practical training, Education methods, Practical skills, Profession development
National Category
Pedagogy
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-94773 (URN)10.1186/s12544-021-00506-1 (DOI)000696207500001 ()2-s2.0-85114879721 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration
Available from: 2022-12-08 Created: 2022-12-08 Last updated: 2024-09-30Bibliographically approved
3. Effect of Train-Driving Simulator Practice in the European Rail Traffic Management System: An Experimental Study
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Effect of Train-Driving Simulator Practice in the European Rail Traffic Management System: An Experimental Study
2023 (English)In: Transportation Research Record, ISSN 0361-1981, E-ISSN 2169-4052, Vol. 2677, no 5, p. 694-706Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Many European train drivers face major changes in their work with the introduction of the new train-protection system, the European Rail Traffic Management System (ERTMS), as information retrieval shifts from outside to in-cab, and a new rulebook is introduced. Therefore, many train drivers have to be educated in a short time, to make the transition safe and efficient. The purpose was to find out how a successful ERTMS practice can be designed in a physically low-fidelity but highly functional train-driving simulator. An experimental design was used, with 16 drivers divided into two groups: one group practiced in a simulator, and the other in reality. Standard training methodology was used, and the learning outcome was assessed by both measuring driving errors and via instructor evaluation of a simulator test. The drivers also filled in a questionnaire to capture how different factors, such as repeated practice, experience, and self-estimated confidence, correlate with performance. Results show that the simulator group committed significantly fewer driving errors and received significantly higher scores from the instructor. In addition, the simulator group's better performance is mostly caused by the possibility of repeated training of different special cases. The findings also imply that several of the more common special cases on the ERTMS can hardly be provoked in real train driving. Furthermore, this work strengthens the theory that novices can hardly estimate their own ability. Therefore, we argue that this type of low-fidelity simulator is well suited for research purposes, for practicing special cases, and for train operation companies to assess drivers’ skills.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Sage Publications, 2023
Keywords
human factors, passenger rail transportation, rail, rail safety, railroad simulators, train
National Category
Transport Systems and Logistics Pedagogy
Research subject
Education
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-94774 (URN)10.1177/03611981221135802 (DOI)000910538500001 ()2-s2.0-85163062053 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration, TRV 2019/70073
Note

Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-07-06 (sofila);

Available from: 2022-12-08 Created: 2022-12-08 Last updated: 2024-09-30Bibliographically approved
4. A validation study comparing performance in a low-fidelity train-driving simulator with actual train driving performance
Open this publication in new window or tab >>A validation study comparing performance in a low-fidelity train-driving simulator with actual train driving performance
2023 (English)In: Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, ISSN 1369-8478, E-ISSN 1873-5517, Vol. 97, p. 109-122Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Background: Although common in other industries, such as the automotive sector, no train-driving validation study has been found in the existing literature. The present paper intends to fill that gap by comparing the results of train-driving performance in a physically low-fidelity but highly functional simulator with real train-driving performance.

Method: Thirty-four train driver students in the final part of their basic education were assessed in a 45-minute simulator test using the number of driving errors as the performance indicator. The results were compared with the performance at 11 weeks of internship as measured by supervisors grading according to a standard procedure. One of the classes (17 to-be drivers) was affected by restrictions related to COVID-19, which led to a shortened internship and distance learning during parts of the internship. The study also intended to measure the effect of the restrictions and the types of errors the drivers made by comparing the two classes.

Results: A significant correlation was found between the number of driving errors and internship grades, r = −0.45, p

Conclusions: This paper shows that this type of low-fidelity simulator is well suited for measuring real train-driving performance. A measurement method that can predict long-term driving should have implications for both research and practical usability. Researchers can use this for studying the effects of, for example, different training methods, while train operation companies can use the method to test their drivers' skills and intervene before an actual accident occurs.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2023
Keywords
COVID-19, Ecological validity, Low-fidelity simulator, Relative validity, Simulator, Train driver
National Category
Psychology
Research subject
Education
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:ltu:diva-99286 (URN)10.1016/j.trf.2023.07.007 (DOI)001060425700001 ()2-s2.0-85165082733 (Scopus ID)
Funder
Swedish Transport Administration
Note

Validerad;2023;Nivå 2;2023-08-08 (hanlid)

Available from: 2023-08-08 Created: 2023-08-08 Last updated: 2024-09-30Bibliographically approved

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