This article establishes the novel D_+^*, , a risk-aware and platform-agnostic heterogeneous global path planner for robotic navigation in complex environments. The proposed planner addresses a fundamental bottleneck of occupancy-based path planners related to their dependency on accurate and dense maps. More specifically, their performance is highly affected by poorly reconstructed or sparse areas (e.g. holes in the walls or ceilings) leading to faulty generated paths outside the physical boundaries of the 3-dimensional space. As it will be presented, D+* addresses this challenge with three novel contributions, integrated into one solution, namely: (a) the proximity risk, (b) the modeling of the unknown space, and (c) the map updates. By adding a risk layer to spaces that are closer to the occupied ones, some holes are filled, and thus the problematic short-cutting through them to the final goal is prevented. The novel established D₊*  also provides safety marginals to the walls and other obstacles, a property that results in paths that do not cut the corners that could potentially disrupt the platform operation. D₊*  has also the capability to model the unknown space as risk-free areas that should keep the paths inside, e.g in a tunnel environment, and thus heavily reducing the risk of larger shortcuts through openings in the walls. D₊* is also introducing a dynamic map handling capability that continuously updates with the latest information acquired during the map building process, allowing the planner to use constant map growth and resolve cases of planning over outdated sparser map reconstructions. The proposed path planner is also capable to plan 2D and 3D paths by only changing the input map to a 2D or 3D map and it is independent of the dynamics of the robotic platform. The efficiency of the proposed scheme is experimentally evaluated in multiple real-life experiments where D₊* is producing successfully proper planned paths, either in 2D in the use case of the Boston dynamics Spot robot or 3D paths in the case of an unmanned areal vehicle in varying and challenging scenarios.

One of the challenges in deploying Micro Aerial Vehicless (MAVs) in unknown environments is the need of securing for collision-free paths with static and dynamic obstacles. This article proposes a monocular vision-based reactive planner for MAVs obstacle avoidance. The avoidance scheme is structured around a Convolution Neural Network (CNN) for object detection and classification (You Only Lock Once (YOLO)), used to identify the bounding box of the objects of interest in the image plane. Moreover, the YOLO is combined with a Kalman filter to robustify the object tracking, in case of losing the boundary boxes, by estimating their position and providing a fixed rate estimation. Since MAVs are fast and agile platforms, the object tracking should be performed in real-time for the collision avoidance. By processing the information of the bounding boxes with the image field of view and applying trigonometry operations, the pixel coordinates of the object are translated to heading commands, which results to a collision free maneuver. The efficacy of the proposed scheme has been extensively evaluated in the Gazebo simulation environment, as well as in experimental evaluations with a MAV equipped with a monocular camera.

When humans and robots operate in and occupy the same local space, proximity detection and proactive collision avoidance is of high importance. As legged robots, such as the Boston Dynamics (BD) Spot, start to appear in real-world application environments, ensuring safe robot-human interactions while operating in full autonomy mode becomes a critical gate-keeping technology for trust in robotic workers. Towards that problem, this article proposes a track-and-avoid architecture for legged robots that combines a visual object detection and estimation pipeline with a Nonlinear Model Predictive Controller (NMPC) based on the Optimization Engine, capable of generating trajectories that satisfy the avoidance and tracking problems in real-time operations where the computation time never exceeded 40 ms. The system is experimentally evaluated using the BD Spot, in a custom sensor and computational suite, and in fully autonomous operational conditions, for the robot-human safety scenario of quickly moving noncooperative obstacles. The results demonstrate the efficacy of the scheme in multiple scenarios where the maximum safety distance violation was only 9 cm for an obstacle moving at 2.5 m/s while affected by both state estimation and object detection uncertainty and noise.

Mapping and exploration of a Martian terrain with an aerial vehicle has become an emerging research direction, since the successful flight demonstration of the Mars helicopter Ingenuity. Although the autonomy and navigation capability of the state of the art Mars helicopter has proven to be efficient in an open environment, the next area of interest for exploration on Mars are caves or ancient lava tube like environments, especially towards the never-ending search of life on other planets. This article presents an autonomous exploration mission based on a modified frontier approach along with a risk aware planning and integrated collision avoidance scheme with a special focus on energy aspects of a custom designed Mars Coaxial Quadrotor (MCQ) in a Martian simulated lava tube. One of the biggest novelties of the article stems from addressing the exploration capability, while rapidly exploring in local areas and intelligently global re-positioning of the MCQ when reaching dead ends in order to efficiently use the battery based consumed energy, while increasing the volume of the exploration. The proposed novel algorithm for the Martian exploration is able to select the next way point of interest, such that the MCQ keeps its heading towards the local exploration direction where it will find maximum information about the surroundings. The proposed three layer cost based global re-position point selection assists in rapidly redirecting the MCQ to previously partially seen areas that could lead to more unexplored part of the lava tube. The Martian fully simulated mission presented in this article takes into consideration the fidelity of physics of Mars condition in terms of thin atmosphere, low surface pressure and low gravity of the planet, while proves the efficiency of the proposed scheme in exploring an area that is particularly challenging due to the subterranean-like environment. The proposed exploration-planning framework is also validated in simulation by comparing it against the graph based exploration planner. Intensive simulations with true Mars conditions are carried out in order to validate and benchmark our approach in a utmost realistic Mars lava tube exploration scenario using a Mars Coaxial Quadrotor.

Exploration and safe navigation in previously unknown GPS-denied obstructed areas are major challenges for autonomous robots when deployed in subterranean environments. In response, this work establishes an Exploration-Planning framework developed for the real-world deployment of Micro Aerial Vehicles (MAVs) in subterranean exploration missions. The fundamental task for an autonomous MAV to navigate in an unknown area, is to decide where to look while navigating such that the MAV will acquire more information about the surrounding. The work presented in this article focuses around 3D exploration of large-scale caves or multi-branched tunnel like structures, while still prioritizing the Look-Ahead and Move-Forward approach for fast navigation in previously unknown areas. In order to achieve such exploration behaviour, the proposed work utilizes a two-layer navigation approach. The first layer deals with computing traversable frontiers to generate the look ahead poses in the constrained field of view, aligned with the MAV’s heading vector that leads to rapid continuous exploration. The proposed frontier distribution based switching goal selection approach allows the MAV to explore various terrains, while still regulating the MAV’s heading vector. The second layer of the proposed scheme deals with global cost based navigation of the MAV to the potential junction in a multi-branched tunnel system leading to a continuous exploration of partially seen areas. The proposed framework is a combination of a novel frontier goal selection approach, risk-aware expandable grid based path planning, nonlinear model predictive control and artificial potential fields based on local reactive navigation, obstacle avoidance, and control for the autonomous deployment of MAVs in extreme environments.

This article presents an overall system architecture for multi-robot coordination in a known environment. The proposed framework is structured around a task allocation mechanism that performs unlabeled multi-robot path assignment informed by 3D path planning, while using a nonlinear model predictive control(NMPC) for each unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) to navigate along its assigned path. More specifically, at first a risk aware 3D path planner D∗+ is applied to calculate cost between each UAV agent and each target point. Then the cost matrix related to the computed trajectories to each goal is fed into the Hungarian Algorithm that solves the assignment problem and generates the minimum total cost. NMPC is implemented to control the UAV while satisfying path following and input constraints. We evaluate the proposed architecture in Gazebo simulation framework and the result indicates UAVs are capable of approaching their assigned target whilst avoiding collisions.

This paper presents a complete system architecture for multi-robot coordination for unbalanced task assignments, where a number of robots are supposed to visit and accomplish missions at different locations. The proposed method first clusters tasks into clusters according to the number of robots, then the assignment is done in the form of one-cluster-to-one-robot, followed by solving the traveling salesman problem (TSP) to determine the visiting order of tasks within each cluster. A nonlinear model predictive controller (NMPC) is designed for robots to navigate to their assigned tasks while avoiding colliding with other robots. Several simulations are conducted to evaluate the feasibility of the proposed architecture. Video examples of the simulations can be viewed at https://youtu.be/5C7zTnv2sfo and https://youtu.be/-JtSg5V2fTI?si=7PfzZbleOOsRdzRd. Besides, we compare the cluster-based assignment with a simulated annealing (SA) algorithm, one of the typical solutions for the multiple traveling salesman problem (mTSP), and the result reveals that with a similar optimization effect, the cluster-based assignment demonstrates a notable reduction in computation time. This efficiency becomes increasingly pronounced as the task-to-agent ratio grows.

This article presents the first ever fully autonomous UAV (Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) mission to perform gas measurements after a real blast in an underground mine. The demonstration mission was deployed around 40 minutes after the blast took place, and as such realistic gas levels were measured. We also present multiple field robotics experiments in different mines detailing the development process. The presented novel autonomy stack, denoted as the Routine Inspection Autonomy (RIA) framework, combines a risk-aware 3D path planning D + ∗ , with 3D LiDAR-based global relocalization on a known map, and it is integrated on a custom hardware and a sensing stack with an onboard gas sensing device. In the presented framework, the autonomous UAV can be deployed in incredibly harsh conditions (dust, significant deformations of the map) shortly after blasting to perform inspections of lingering gases that present a significant safety risk to workers. We also present a change detection framework that can extract and visualize the areas that were changed in the blasting procedure, a critical parameter for planning the extraction of materials, and for updating existing mine maps. As will be demonstrated, the RIA stack can enable robust autonomy in harsh conditions, and provides reliable and safe navigation behavior for autonomous Routine Inspection missions.

This work presents a field-hardened autonomous multimodal legged-aerial robotic system for subterranean exploration, extending a legged robot to be the carrier of an aerial platform capable of a rapid deployment in search-and-rescue scenarios. The driving force for developing such robotic configurations are the requirements for large-scale and long-term missions, where the payload capacity and long battery life of the legged robot is combined and integrated with the agile motion of the aerial agent. The multimodal robot is structured around the quadruped Boston Dynamics Spot, enhanced with a custom configured autonomy sensor payload as well as a UAV carrier platform, while the aerial agent is a custom built quadcopter. This work presents the novel design and hardware implementation as well as the onboard sensor suites. Moreover it establishes the overall autonomy architecture in a unified supervision approach while respecting each locomotion modality, including guidance, navigation, perception, state estimation, and control capabilities with a focus on rapid deployment and efficient exploration. The robotic system complete architecture is evaluated in real subterranean tunnel areas, in multiple fully autonomous search-and-rescue missions with the goal of identifying and locating objects of interest within the subterranean environment.

This article presents a dataset collected from the subterranean (SubT) environment with a current state-of-the-art sensors required for autonomous navigation. The dataset includes sensor measurements collected with RGB, RGB-D, event-based and thermal cameras, 2D and 3D lidars, inertial measurement unit (IMU), and ultra wideband (UWB) positioning systems which are mounted on the mobile robot. The overall sensor setup will be referred further in the article as a data collection platform. The dataset contains synchronized raw data measurements from all the sensors in the robot operating system (ROS) message format and video feeds collected with action and 360 cameras. A detailed description of the sensors embedded into the data collection platform and a data collection process are introduced. The collected dataset is aimed for evaluating navigation, localization and mapping algorithms in SubT environments. This article is accompanied with the public release of all collected datasets from the SubT environment. Link: Dataset (C) 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V.